2.

The (DC) Resistivity method

 Topics

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Some theoretical aspects
2.3 Instrumentation
2.4 Data representation
2.5 Basic aspects of interpretation
 2.1 Introduction

• Electrical methods employ a variety of measurements of

the effects of electrical current flow within the Earth.
• DC Resistivity - An active method that employs
measurements of the electrical potential associated with
subsurface electrical current flow generated by a DC, or
slowly varying AC, source. Factors that affect the
measured potential can be mapped, including the
presence and quality of pore fluids.
 Basic idea:

Introduce known DC current I,

measure potential difference V
 2.2 Theoretical aspects

Ohm’s law:

I A I

 L J = E
V  I  
 A
 The resistivity of earth materials

1. Electric conduction
The normal current flow in materials containing free
electrons, such as the metals.
2. Electrolytic conduction
Most rocks are poor electrical conductors (high
specific resistivities). Bulk resistivities lowered by
the presence of fluids, mainly water. The propagation
of current occurs through ionic conduction.
3. Dielectric conduction
In poor conductors or insulators. External varying
electric field displaces the atomic electrons with
respect to their nuclei and produces a current known
as the displacement current. Of secondary
importance for electrical exploration in earth
 Resistivities of water-saturated rocks

High resistivity

Increasing Increasing Decreasing

salinity porosity grain size

Low resistivity
 Apparent resistivity

V  V1 V 2
V
 L L 
 I  1 1   2 2 
 A A
V1 V2
I
   1 L1   2 L2 
A
I A I
1 2

L1 L2

L
1L1   2 L2
a 
L

Apparent resistivity of the object is the resistivity that would

have been obtained if the object had been homogeneous
(consisting of a single material).
Electric potential due to a single current electrode
Electric potential due to a single current electrode (cont)

r M M’

dr

dr I
dV   I V
2r 2 2r
Electric potential due to two current electrodes
Electric potential difference due to two current
electrodes (cont)

I I
VMN
A B M N

BM

BN

AM

AN

V MN  V M  V N  A  V M  V N  B
I  1 1   I  1 1 
      
2  AM AN  2  BM BN 
I  1 1 1 1 
     
2  AM AN BM BN 
Plot of the electric potential difference due to two
current electrodes

A M N B

V  VMN
 Formula for apparent resistivity

1
2VMN  1 1 1 1 
a      
I  AM AN BM BN 
VMN
K
I

K is the geometric factor

 Current distribution

L
x L-x
I I

C1 C2

x
r1 r2

z
 1 V Jx
Jx 
 x
I  1 1 Halfway between C1 and C2:
   
2 x  r1 r2   
 x  x  L  I  L 
I Jx   

2
 3 
r
 1 r2 
3



2  2 L2
z 
4
 3
2 

 Current distribution (cont)

0.8

0.6
Jx/J0

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

z/L
 Current distribution (cont)

Fraction of current flowing at depths larger than z

0.8

0.6
Ix/I

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
z/L

Ix 2 1  2 z 
 1  tan  
Almost 50% of the current placed in I   L
the ground flows through rock at
depths shallower or equal to half the
electrode spacing
 Effects of inhomogeneous ground

Distortion of current flow at a plane interface

 J



J 
tan  2  2

tan 1 1
Distortion of current flow at a plane interface (cont)
Current flow in layered media vs current electrode spacing
Current flow in layered media vs current electrode spacing:
Influence on a
Current flow in layered media vs current electrode spacing
Current flow in layered media vs current electrode spacing:
Influence on a
Electrode Arrays
Electrode Arrays (cont)
 Electrode Arrays (cont)

Pole-dipole Array

b
a

A M N B

Dipole-dipole Array

2l 2l(n-1) 2l

A B M N
Survey types: Sounding vs Profiling

Sounding

50.
Advantages and disadvantages of Wenner and
Schlumberger Arrays for sounding
 Profiling

Electrode effects
 Apparent resistivity curves for soundings over a
single layer overlying a half-space

Example 1:
Halfspace has lower
resistivity
 Apparent resistivity curves for soundings over a
single layer overlying a half-space

45o

Example 2:
Halfspace has higher
resistivity
Apparent resistivity curves for soundings over 2
layers overlying a half-space

Example 1

45o
Apparent resistivity curves for soundings over 2
layers overlying a half-space

Example 2

45o
 Electrodes

Electrode resistance

A M N B

Resistance is inversely proportional to depth

 Electrodes (cont)

Electrode polarization

• Due to differences in the chemical nature of the material of the

potential electrodes and the electrolyte in the soil

Electrode material
1. Lead (too soft) Increasing
2. Porous pots (fragile, labour- and time intensive) polarizability;

3. Copper (widely used) Decreasing

quality
4. Steel (excessive drift)
 “Noise”

Telluric and industrial currents

“Noise” (cont)
Electrode effects
“Noise” (cont)

EM Inductive coupling – the skin effect

“Noise” (cont)

Leakage
 2.3 Instrumentation

AB circuit:

• Current source, Control unit, cables, electrodes

• Amperemeter – precision better than 2% of f.s.d.
• Current direction normally reversed to increase S/N
ratio
• Cable should be in good condition to prevent leakage
• Electrochemical effects negligible for current
electrodes – steel electrodes are often used
MN circuit:

• DC voltmeter, recorder, compensator, cables,

electrodes
• Voltmeter – modern voltmeters have high precision
• Compensator – eliminates contact- and self-potentials
• Cable should be in good condition to prevent leakage
• Low polarization electrodes should be used
2.4 Data representation
Resistivity profiles
 Pseudo sections
(usually for pole-dipole and
dipole-dipole arrays)
Resistivity maps
 2.4 Basic aspects of interpretation

Electrical sounding interpretation

• Aim: to express the sounding results in geological terms
• Requires: A sound knowledge + considerable experience
with resistivity methods, a good concept of the structural
geology.
• A single sounding curve is of limited value – should be
considered in conjunction with the other sounding
curves constituting the investigation as well as with
geological and borehole information
 The Dar Zarrouk parameters

• The resistivity method is near-sighted

• Due to the averaging effect the effect of a layer at depth
is difficult to separate from the effects of the
neighbouring layers – unless its resistivity differs greatly
• The Dar Zarrouk parameters are closely linked to these
limitations of the electric sounding technique
 The Dar Zarrouk parameters (cont)

T
1m
1m n1
 T   h
1
h1  i1 i i
2
S h2
H n1 hi

n 1
S  
hn-1 i1 i
n
 The Dar Zarrouk parameters (cont)

Average transverse resistivity: t  T

H

Average longitudinal resistivity:  H

l S
t
Macroanisotropy:     TS
l H2
 The Dar Zarrouk parameters (cont)

Consider a homogeneous, isotropic medium with resistivity

m   
t l

T  he  m he  H
with
S h  m  
e m l

Implication: when we make measurements at the surface of

the earth we cannot distinguish between an isotropic
layer of thickness h and resistivity  and an anisotropic
layer of thickness h/ and average resistivity m
The Dar Zarrouk parameters (cont)

Principle of equivalence
The Dar Zarrouk parameters (cont)

Principle of suppression
Interpretation by means of curve fitting

2-layer master
curves
3-layer master
curves
 3-layer curve types

     
1 2 3 1 2 3


1 H - type K - type

2
      
3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Q - type A - type