Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Practical
Temperature
Measurements

001
Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Agenda

 Background, history
 Mechanical sensors
 Electrical sensors
 Optical Pyrome
ter
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
 Summary & Examples

A1
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

What is Temperature?

A scalar quantity that determines the dire

ction of heat flow between two bodies
A statistical measurement
A difficult measurement
A mostly empirical measurement

002
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

How is heat transferred?

Conduction

Metal coffee cup

 Convection

 Radiation

003
Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

The Dewar

Glass is a poor conductor

Gap reduces conduction
Metallization reflects radiation
Vacuum reduces convection

004
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Thermal Mass

 Don't let the measuring d

Senso evice change the temperat
r
ure of what you're measur
ing.
 Response time =
 f{Thermal mass}
 f{Measuring device}

Senso
r
005
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Temperature errors
 What is YOUR normal temperature?
 Thermometer accuracy, resolution
 Contact time
 Thermal mass of thermometer, tongue
 Human error in reading

97.6 98.6 99.6

36.5 37 37.5
006
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

History of temperature sensors

 1600 ad  1700 ad

1 9
2 6 Fahrenheit
1  Instrument
0 Maker
 12*8=96 po
Galileo: First tem ints
 Early thermom  Hg: Repeata
p. sensor ble
 pressure-sensit eters  One standar
ive  Not repeatabl
d scale
 not repeatable e
 No good way
to calibrate 007
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

The 1700's: Standardization

 1700 ad 1800 ad
0 100
 Thomson effect
 Absolute zero
100
0
Celsius:
Common, repeat
"Centigrade"
able calibration re
ference points scale

008
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

1821: It was a very good year

 1800 ad 1900 ad

The Seebeck e
ffect

Davy: The RTD

 Pt 100 @ O deg.C


009
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

The 1900's: Electronic sensors

1900 ad  2000 ad

1 uA/K
 Thermistor

IC sensor

 IPTS 1968  IPTS 1990

 "Degree Kelvin">> "kelvins"

 "Centigrade">> " Celsius"

010
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Serie
s
Temperature scales
Absolute ze Freezing po Boiling poi
ro int H O
2 nt H O2
 Celsius
-273.15 0 100

0  Kelvin
273.15 373.15
 Fahrenheit
-459.67 32 212
 Rankine
0 427.67 671.67

"Standard" is "better":
 Reliable reference point
s
 Easy to understand
011
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

IPTS '90: More calibration points

– 273.16: TP H2 – 1357.77: FP C
– O234.3156: TP – u1337.33: FP
Hg – Au
1234.93: FP
Ag
Large gap – 933.473: FP
Al
– 692.677: FP Z
– 83.8058: TP n
Ar – 505.078: FP S
– 54.3584: TP n429.7485: FP
–
– O2
24.5561: TP
– 20.3:
Ne BP H In
–
217 Liq/vapor H – 302.9146: MP
– 213.81 TP H
Ga
–
23 to 5: Vapor
He 012
Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical Pyrome
ter
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A2
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Bimetal thermometer

 Two dissimilar mForces due to t

Result
etals, tightly bon hermal expansi
ded on

200 Bimetallic thermometer

100 300
0  Poor accuracy
400  Hysteresis
Thermal expansion causes big proble
ms in other designs:
 IC bonds
 Mechanical interference

013
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Liquid thermometer; Paints

100

0  Thermally-sensitive paints
 Irreversible change
 Low resolution
 Useful in hard-to-measure are
Liquid-filled thermometer
 Accurate over a small range
 Accuracy & resolution= f(lengt
h)
 Range limited by liquid
 Fragile
 Large thermal mass
 Slow 014
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical Pyromet
er
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A3
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Optical Pyrometer

Infrared Radiation-sensitive
Photodiode or photoresistor
Accuracy= f{emissivity}
Useful @ very high temperatures
Non-contacting
Very expensive
Not very accurate

015
Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Agenda

 Background, history
 Mechanical sensors
 Electrical sensors
 Optical Pyrome
ter
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
 Summary & Examples

A4
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Resistance Temperature Detector

 Most accurate & stable

 Good to 800 degrees Celsius
 Resistance= f{Absolute T}
 Self-heating a problem
 Low resistance
 Nonlinear

016
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

RTD Equation
R= 100 Ohms @ O C
Callendar-Van Deusen Equation:

For T>OC: R=Ro(1+aT) - Ro(ad(.01T)(.01T-1))

 Ro=100 @ O C
 a= 0.00385 / - Cfor Pt
R  d= 1.49

300
200 Nonlinearity
100

0
T
200 400 600 800
017
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Measuring an RTD: 2-wire method

Rx Rlead
100 +
Rlead V I ref= 5 mA
Pt -

R= Iref*(Rx + 2* Rlead)

 Error= 2 /.385= more than 5 degrees C for 1 ohm
Rlead!
Self-heating:
 For 0.5 V signal, I= 5mA; P=.5*.005=2.5 mwatt
s
 @ 1 mW/deg C, Error = 2.5 deg C!
 Moral: Minimize Iref; Use 4-wire method
 If you must use 2-wire, NULL out the lead resistance

018
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

The 4-Wire technique

Rx
100 +
Rlead=1 V I ref= 5 mA
-

 R= Iref * Rx
 Error not a function of R in source or sense lea
ds
 No error due to changes in lead R

 Twice as much wire

 Twice as many scanner channels
 Usually slower than 2-wire

019
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Offset compensation
Voffset
100 +
V I ref (switched)
-

Eliminates thermal voltages

 Measure V without I applied
 Measure VWith I applied

V
R=
I

020
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Bridge method
100
1000

V
100
1000
  High resolution (DMM s
tays on most sensitive r
ange)
 Nonlinear output
 Bridge resistors too clos
e to heat source

021
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

3-Wire bridge
1000 100
Rlead 1
V
Sense wire
3-Wire
1000 Rlead 2 PRTD
100
 Keeps bridge away from heat source
 Break DMM lead (dashed line); connect t
o RTD through 3rd "sense" wire
 If Rlead 1= Rlead 2, sense wire makes err
or small
 Series resistance of sense wire causes no
error
022
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical Pyrome
ter
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A5
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Electrical sensors: Thermistor

Rlead=1
 +
5k  Rlead=1
V I= 0.1 mA
-

Hi-Z; Sensitive: 5 k @ 25C; R = 4%/deg C


Limited range
 2-Wire method: R= I * (Rthmr + 2*Rlead)
 Lead R Error= 2
 /400= 0.005 degrees C
 Low thermal mass: High self-heating
 Very nonlinear

023
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

I.C. Sensor

AD590
I= 1 uA/K
+  High output
5V - 100  Very linear
 Accurate @
V = 1mV/K
room ambient
960  Limited range
 Cheap

024
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Summary: Absolute T devices

RTD
AD590
I.C.
Thermistor

Most accurate  High output  High output

Most stable  Fast  Most linear
Fairly linear  2-wire meas.  Inexpensive
Expensive  Very nonlinear  Limited variety
Slow  Limited range  Limited range
Needs I source  Needs I source  Needs V source
Self-heating  Self-heating  Self-heating
4-wire meas.  Fragile
025
Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Agenda
 Background, history
 Mechanical sensors
 Electrical sensors
 Optical Pyrome
ter
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
 Summary & Examples

A6
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Thermocouples
The Gradient Theory
Ta Tx
The WIRE is the sen
V sor, not the junctio
n
Tx The Seebeck coeffici
ent (e) is a function
V= e(T) dT
of temperature
Ta

026
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Making a thermocouple
Ta

B Tx
V
Two wires make a t
A hermocouple
Ta

Tx Ta Voltage output is n
onzero if metals are
V= e dT + e dT not the same
A B
Ta Tx
027
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Gradient theory also says...

Ta

A Tx
V
If wires are the sam
A e type, or if there is
Ta one wire, and both
Tx Ta ends are at the sam
e temperature, outp
V= e dT + e dT = 0 ut= Zero.
A A
Ta Tx
028
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Now try to measure it:

a
Fe
Tx Theoretically,
b Vab= f{Tx-Tab}
Con
But, try to measure it with a DMM:
Cu Fe Cu Fe

Cu Con
Tx
= V Tx

Cu Con
Result: 3 unequal junctions, all at unknown temperatu
res
029
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Solution: Reference Thermocouple

Problems: a) 3 different thermocouples,
b) 3 unknown temperatures
 Solutions: a) Add an opposing thermocouple
b) Use a known reference temp. Isothermal
block
Cu Fe Cu Fe
Tx Add Tx
Con
V V Con
Tref
Tref = 0oC
Cu Fe Cu Fe

030
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

The Classical Method

Cu Fe
 If both Cu junctions are at s
Tx ame T, the two "batteries" c
V Con ancel
Tref  Tref is an ice bath (sometim
o
=0C es an electronic ice bath)
Cu Fe  All T/C tables are reference
d to an ice bath
 V= f{Tx-Tref}

 Question: How can we eliminate the ice bath?

031
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Eliminating the ice bath

 Don't force Tref to icepoint, jus

Cu Fe t measure it
 Compensate for Tref mathemat
Tx
ically:
V Con V=f{ Tx - Tref }
Tref Tice Tice

Cu Fe  If we know Tref , we can

Tice
compute Tx.

032
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Eliminating the second T/C

Cu Fe
Extend the isothermal block
Tx If isothermal, V1-V2=0

V Con 2
Cu Fe
Tref Tx
Cu Fe V Tref Con
1 2

Cu
1
033
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

The Algorithm for one T/C

Cu Fe
Measure Tref: RTD, IC or thermistor
Tx o
Tref ==> Vref @ O C for Type J(Fe-
V Tref Con C)
Know V, TxKnow Vref: Compute Vx
Solve for using Vx
Cu

Compute Vx
Vx=V+Vref V
Vref

0o Tref Tx
034
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Linearization
V

Small sectors

0o Tref Tx T
 Polynomial: T=a +a V +a2V +a3V +.... a9 V
0 1 2 3 9
 Nested (faster): T=a +V(a +V(a +V(a +.......))))
0 1 2 3
))))) 2
0
 Small sectors (faster): T=T +bV+cV
 Lookup table: Fastest, most memory

035
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Common Thermocouples
mV E
60
K Platinum T/Cs
J N
40 Base Metal T/Cs

20 T R S
deg C
0 500 1000 2000

All have Seebeck coefficients in MICROvolts/deg.C

036
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Common Thermocouples
Seebeck
Type Metals Coeff: uV/C

J Fe-Con 50  Microvolt output is a t

K Ni-Cr 40 ough measurement
T Cu-Con 38  Type "N" is fairly new..
S Pt/Rh-Pt 10 more rugged and high
E Ni/Cr-Con 59 er temp. than type K,
N Ni/Cr/Si-Ni/Si 39 but still cheap

037
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Extension Wires  Possible problem

here

Large extension wires

Small diameter
measurement
wires
 Extension wires are cheaper, more rugged, b
ut not exactly the same characteristic curve a
s the T/C.
 Keep extension/TC junction near room temp
erature
 Where is most of the signal generated in038this
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Noise: DMM Glossary

Normal Mode
ac NOISE
HI
DM
M
Inpu Normal Mode
R
t esistance LO dc SIGNAL

Normal Mode: In series with input

Common Mode: Both HI and LO
HI
DM terminals driven equally
IM
npu
tResistance LO
Common Mode
ac NOISE

039
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Generating noise
Electrostatic Magnetic
Noise Noise

HI
DM
M Normal Mode
Inpu
R
t esistance LO dc SIGNAL

 Large surface area, high Rlead: Max. static cou

pling
HI Large loop area: Max. magnetic coupling
DM  Large R lead, small R leak: Ma
IM
npu R lead x.
tResistance LO
R leak common mode noise
Common Mode
ac source
Common Mode Current

040
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Eliminating noise
Electrostati Magneti
c c
Noise Noise
HI
DM
IM
npu Normal Mode
tR L dc SIGNAL
O
 Filter, shielding, small loop area
(Caution: filter slows down the measure
ment)
HI
DM  Make R leak close to
M
Input
R L -
R leak O +
Common Mo
de
Common Mode Curren ac source
t

041
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Magnetic Noise
Magnetic coupling
DMM
Input Induced I
Resistance

 Minimize area
 Twist leads
 Move away from strong fields

042
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Reducing Magnetic Noise

 Equal and opposite induced currents

DMM
Input
Resistance

Even with twisted pair:

 Minimize area
 Move away from strong fiel
ds

043
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

AC Noise
Electrostatic noise source

Stray capacitances
DMM
Input
Resistance

Inoise
Stray resistances

 Stray capacitance causes I noise

 DMM resistance to ground is important

044
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Reducing Electrostatic Cou

AC Noise source
pling

HI
DMM
Input
Resistance
LO

Rleak
Shield shunts stray current
For noise coupled to the tip
,
Rleak is still important
045
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

A scanning system for T/Cs

 One thermistor,
multiple T/C channels
 Noise reduction
 CPU linearizes T/C
 DMM must be
very high quality
OHMs
Conv.
Isolators
HI I/O
uP uP (HP-IB,
RS-232) To
LO Integrating ROM
Lookup Computer
A/D
Floating Circuitry Grounded Circuitry
046
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Errors in the system Ref. Block Thermal gradient

T/C Calibration
Thermal emf & Wire errors

Ref. Thermistor cal, linearity

Reference
Thermistor Linearization Extension wire
Ohms algorithm junction error
OHMs measurement
Conv.
Isolators
HI I/O
uP uP (HP-IB,
RS-232)
LO Integrating ROM
A/D Lookup
Floating Circuitry Grounded Circuitry
047
DMM offset, linearity, thermal emf, noise
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Physical errors

 Shorts, shunt impedance  Sensor accuracy

 Galvanic action  Thermal contact
 Decalibration  Thermal shunting

048
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Physical Errors

 Water droplets ca Hot spot causes shunt Z, mete

use galvanic action shows the WRONG temperatu
; huge offsets e

Exceeding the T/C's range can cause permanent

offset
Real T/C's have absolute accuracy of 1 deg C @ 2
5C: Calibrate often and take care 049
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Physical error: Thermal contact

Surface probe
 Make sure thermal mass is much smaller
than that of object being measured

050
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Physical errors: Decalibration

350 C
300 C 975 C
200 C 1000 C
100 C

This section  Don't exceed Tmax of T/C

produces the Temp. cycling causes work-hardening,
ENTIRE signal decalibration
 Replace the GRADIENT section
051
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical Pyromet
er
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A7
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

The basic 4 temperature sensors

AD590
RTD I.C.
Thermistor
Thermocouple
 Most accurate  High output  High output  Wide variety
 Most stable  Fast  Most linear  Cheap
 Fairly linear  2-wire meas  Cheap  Wide T. range
.  No self-heating
 Expensive  Very nonlinear  Limited variety
 Slow  Limited range  Limited range  Hard to measure
 Needs I source  Needs I source
 Needs V source  Relative T. only
 Self-heating  Self-heating  Self-heating  Nonlinear
 4-wire meas.  Fragile
 Special connect
ors

Absolute temperature sensors

052
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Summary

 Innovation by itself is not enough...

you must develop standards
 Temperature is a very difficult,
mostly empirical measurement
 Careful attention to detail is required

053
 Hewlett-Packard Classroom Series

Examples
Measurement Sensor
 Photochemical process contr  RTD (most accurate)
ol:
 Thermistor
 Flower petal: (lowest thermal mass)
 Optical pyrometer
 Molten glass: (hi temp, no contact)
 RTD (if <800C); or T/C
 Induction furnace: (Beware magnetic I nois
e)
 100 degree Heat aging oven:  Any of the 4 sensors

054