ADAMA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICAL AND VEHICLE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

POST GRADUATE PROGRAM

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

TERM PAPER PRESENTATION ON

STRESS - STRAIN RELATION

PRESENTER TADELE
BELAY
 Descriptions
1. Description of Stress-Strain Relation for Elastic Deformation
1.1 Mohr’s Circle Equations

1.2 Strain

1.3 Small strain deformations

1.4 The strain Tensor

1.5 Elastic Deformation

1.6 Strain Energy

2. Description of Stress-Strain Relation for Plastic Deformation

2.1 Plastic Work

2.2 Effective Stress

2.3 Effective Strain

2.4 Flow Rules

Review Exercises
Introduction:
Stress is the intensity of force and strain is a measure of the amount of
deformation. Experiences shows that, all solid materials can be deformed when
subjected to external load.

It is further found that up to certain limiting loads a solid will recover its
original dimensions when the load is removed.

The recovery of the original dimensions of a deformed body when the load is
removed is known as Elastic Behavior.
For most materials, as long as the load does not exceed the elastic limit, the
deformation is proportional to the load. This relationship is known as Hooke’s
law.

It is more frequently stated as stress is directly proportional to the strain.

Hooke’s law requires that the load deformation relationship should be linear.

However, it does not necessarily follow that all materials which behave
elastically will have a linear stress-strain relationship. Rubber is an example of
a material with a non linear stress-strain relationship that still satisfies the
definition of an elastic material.
 1. Description of Stress-Strain Relation for Elastic Deformation

Elastic deformations in metals are quite small and require very sensitive
instruments for their measurement.

Ultrasensitive instruments have shown that the elastic limits of the metals are
much lower than the values usually measured in engineering tests of
materials.
Average strain which is the ratio of
change in length to the original length can
be related by the following representation;

As shown on fig. , the external load P is

balanced by the internal resisting force

where  is the stress normal to the cutting

plane and A is the cross sectional area of
the bar. The equilibrium equation is
Stress
There are nine components of stress as shown in Figure.
A normal stress component is one in which the force is acting normal to the
plane. It may be tensile or compressive.

A shear stress component is one in which the force acts parallel to the plane.
Stress components are defined with two subscripts. The first denotes the normal
to the plane on which the force acts and the second is the direction of the force.
For example,
σxx is a tensile stress in the x-direction.

Shear stress acting on the x-plane in the y-

direction is denoted σxy.

Repeated subscripts (e.g., σxx , σyy, σzz)

indicate normal stresses.

Mixed subscripts (e.g., σzx, σxy, σyz) denote

shear stresses
 A state of stress in tensor notation is expressed as;

The use of the opposite convention should cause no problem because σi j = σji

where i and j are iterated over x, y, and z.

Except where tensor notation is required, it is simpler to use a single subscript for
a normal stress and denote a shear stress by τ .
For example, σx ≡ σxx and τxy ≡ σxy.

In the same manner,

Pairs of shear stresses with the same subscripts in reverse order are always equal
(e.g., τi j = τ ji ).
Stress transformation;

The general equation for transforming the stresses from one set of axes
(e.g., n, m, p) to another set of axes (e.g., i, j, k) is

Here, the term ℓim is the cosine of the angle between the i and m axes
and the term ℓjn is the cosine of the angle between the j and n axes. This
is often written as
Consider transforming stresses from the x, y, z axis system to the x’, y’, z’
system shown in Figure
Stresses represented by the same subscripts represent the principal stresses,
where we can easily represent by a single subscript like; x, y, and z. They act
perpendicular to a plane. The magnitudes of the principal stresses, σp, are the
roots of;

where I1, I2, and I3 are called the invariants of the stress tensor. They are

The first invariant I1 = −p/3 where p is the pressure. I1, I2, and I3 are
independent of the orientation of the axes. Expressed in terms of the principal
stresses, they are;
In the special cases where two of the three shear stress terms vanish (e.g., τyx =
τzx = 0), the stress σz normal to the xy plane is a principal stress and the other
two principal stresses lie in the xy plane. This is illustrated in Figure

For these conditions ℓx’z = ℓy’z = 0, τyz = τzx = 0, ℓx’x = ℓy’y = cos , and ℓx’y = −ℓy’x
= sin . Substituting these relations into equations results in;

From trigonometric general relations we have;

By substituting the above values we will obtain the following relations;

If is set to zero, equation can be re-arranged like the following;

The principal stresses can be calculated as;

Depending on the above equation, the following important facts will figure out;

•The maximum and minimum values of normal stress on the oblique plane
through point O occur when the shear stress is zero.
•The maximum and minimum values of both normal stress and shear stress
occur at angles which are 90O apart.
•The maximum shear stress occurs at an angle halfway between the maximum
and minimum normal stresses.
•The variation of normal stress and shear stress occurs in the form of a sine
wave, with a period of  =180o. These relationships are valid for any state of
stress.
Mohr’s circle (three dimensional) for various states of stress for uniaxial
tension and compression

Mohr’s circles(3D) for various states of stress. Biaxial tension and triaxial
tension (unequal)
Mohr’s circles (3D) for various states of stress. Uniaxial tension plus biaxial
compression.
For the limiting case of equal triaxial tension (hydrostatic tension) Mohr’s circle
reduces to a point, and there are no shear stresses acting on any plane in the body.

The effectiveness of biaxial and triaxial tension stresses in reducing the shear stresses
results in a considerable decrease in the ductility of the material because plastic
deformation is produced by shear stresses. Thus, brittle fracture is invariably associated
with triaxial stresses developed at a notch or stress raiser.

However fig e shows that, if compressive stresses are applied lateral to a tensile stress,
the maximum shear stress is larger than for the case of either uni-axial tension or
compression. Because of the high value of shear stress relative to the applied tensile
stress the material has an excellent opportunity to deform plastically without fracturing
under this state of stress.
For example: greater ductility is obtained in extrusion through a die than in simple
uniaxial tension because the reaction of the metal with the die will produce lateral
compressive stresses.
STRAIN
The displacement of points in a continuum may result from rigid body
translation, rotation and deformation. The deformation of a solid may be
made up of dilatation, change in volume, or distortion, change in shape.
Two types of strains are found;
•Engineering Strain or Nominal strain
It is denoted by e;

•True strain or logarithmic strain

It is represented by

The true strain and engineering strains are almost equal when they are small.
Look by expanding the above equation;
True strains are more convenient than engineering strains due to:
True strains for an equivalent amount of tensile and compressive
deformation are equal except for sign.
True strains are additive.
The volume strain is the sum of the three normal strains.

Small strain deformations

Small deformations are the province of elastic theory, while larger
deformations are treated in the disciplines of plasticity and hydrodynamics.
The equations developed in this section are basically geometrical;
Considering the above figure, a solid body in fixed coordinates at x, y, and z.
When the body displaces from Q to Q’, the new coordinates will be: x+u, y+v,
z+w. The components of the displacement are u, v, and w.

In the undeformed state points A and B are separated by a distance dx. Since
displacement u, in this one dimensional case, is a function of x, B is displaced
slightly more than A since it is further from the fixed end.

The normal strain is given by

The normal strain, ex, is defined as The shear strains are associated
with the angles between AD and
A’D’ and between AB and A’B’.
For small deformations
To generalize this to three dimensions,
each of the components of the
displacement will be linearly related to
each of the three initial coordinates of
the point.

Where the above strain coefficients

which can be identified as principal
stress is described as;

For the angular distortion of the axis;

The total shear strain is the sum of these two angles,

In general, displacement components such as exy, eyx … etc., produce both

shear strain and rigid body rotation.
The total shear strain is the sum of these two angles,

Similarly,

This definition of shear strain,, is equivalent to the simple shear measured in

a torsion of shear test.
The strain Tensor
If tensor shear strains are defined as;

Small shear strains from a tensor,

Because small strains form a tensor, they can be transformed from one set
of axes to another in a way identical to the transformation of stresses.
Mohr’s circle relations can be used.
It must be remembered, however, that

and that the transformations hold only for small strains. If γyz = γzx = 0,

And

The principal strains can be found from the Mohr’s circle equations for strains,
Strains on other planes are given by;

Elastic Deformation

Up to now discussion of stress and strain has been perfectly general and
applicable to any continuum.

Hooke’s law states that;

Where E is the modulus of elasticity in tension or compression. While a

tensile force in the x direction produces an extension along that axis, it also
produces a contraction in the transverse y and z directions.
The transverse strain has been found by experience to be a constant fraction of
the strain in the longitudinal direction. This is known as Poisson’s ratio, and
denoted by the symbol v.

Only the absolute value of v is used in calculations. For most metals the value
of v are close to 0.33.

To develop the stress-strain relations for a three dimenstional state of stress,

consider a unit cube subjected normal stresses and shearing stresses .

Because the elastic stresses are small and the material is isotropic, we can
assume that normal stress x does not produce shear strain on the x,y or z

planes and that a shear stress xy does not produce normal strains on the x, y or
z planes.
Applying the principle of superposition to determine the strain produced by
more than one stress component. For example, the stress x produces a normal

strain x and two transverse strains y=-v x and z = -v x

Hooke’s laws can be expressed as

The shearing stresses acting on the unit cube produce shearing strains;

The proportionality constant G is the modulus of elasticity in shear, or the

modulus of rigidity. Values of G are usually determined from a torsion test.

Still another elastic constant is the bulk modulus or the volumetric modulus
of elasticity K. The bulk modulus is the ratio of the hydrostatic pressure to
the dilatation that it produces;
Where –p is the hydrostatic pressure,  is the volumetric strain and  is the
compressibility
Many useful relationships can be derived between the elastic constants E, G, v
and K. For example:

Another important relationship is the expression relating E, G and v. This

equation is usually developed in a first course in strength of materials;
Typical room-temperature values of elastic constants for isentropic materials

Modulus of elasticity = E
Modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) = G
Poisson’s ratio = v
Strain Energy

The elastic strain energy U is the energy expended by the action of external forces
in deforming an elastic body. Essentially all the work performed during elastic
deformation is stored as elastic energy, and this energy is recovered on the release
of the applied forces.

Energy or work is equal to a force multiplied by the distance over which it acts.
In the deformation of an elastic body, the force and deformation increase linearly
from initial values of zero so that the average energy is equal to one half of their
product. This is also equal to the area under the load deformation curve;
For an elemental cube that is subjected to only a tensile stress along the x-axis,
the elastic strain energy is given by

The above equation describes the total elastic energy absorbed by the
element. Since Adx is the volume of the element, the strain energy per unit
volume or strain energy density Uo is given by;

Note that the lateral strains which accompany deformation in simple tension
do not enter into the expression for strain energy because forces do not exist
in the direction of the lateral strains.
By the same type of reasoning, the strain energy per unit volume of an
element subjected to pure shear is given by;

The elastic strain energy for a general three dimensional stress distribution
may be obtained by superposition.

Or in tensor notation

Substituting the Hooke’s law in the above equation for strain;

Stress-strain relationship in plastic deformation

With elastic deformation, a body returns to its original shape when the stress is
removed and the stress and strain under elastic loading are related through
Hooke’s laws. Any stress will cause some strain.

In contrast, no plastic deformation occurs until the stress reaches the yield
strength. For ductile metals large amounts of plastic deformation can occur under
continually increasing stress.

In plastic deformation, the deformation is an irreversible process, strain

hardening usually occurs as a result of the deformation, and anisotropy may
occur with continued deformation.
Elastic deformation depends only on the initial and final state of stress and
strain, where as plastic deformation also depends on the stress-strain path and
may be inhomogeneous.

In elastic deformation usually small strains are involved, and the principal
axes for stress and strain coincide.

There are two theories of plasticity that are commonly used:

 The flow or incremental theory as expressed by the Levy-Mises equations

 The deformation theory in which proportional loading is assumed

PLASTIC WORK

The differential amount of plastic work per volume associated with tensile
strain dε of a bar of length l0, subjected to a force acting on an area is;

In the most general case where there are three normal stresses and three shear
stresses the plastic work per volume is

In term of principal stresses and strains,

EFFECTIVE STRESS

It is useful to define an effective stress, , for a yield criterion such that

yielding occurs when the magnitude of reaches a critical value.

This can also be expresses as;

For the Tresca criterion,

EFFECTIVE STRAIN

The effective strain, , is defined such that the incremental plastic work
per volume is

The von Mises effective strain may be expressed as

FLOW RULES ( LEVY-MISES EQUATION)

The strains that result from elastic deformation are described by Hooke’s law.
There are similar relations for plastic deformation, called the flow rules.

Stress-strain relationships that describe the path of plastic deformation of a

material are called flow rules.

In the most general form the flow rule may be written

where f is the function of σi j that describes yielding (i.e., the yield criterion.) It
is related to what has been called the plastic potential. For the von Mises
criterion, differentiation results in ;
 Conclusion

Plastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation

Hooke’s law is considered; Flow rules is applied

REVIEW EXERCISES
Exercise 1:

Consider a stress state with x=70MPa, y=35MPa, xy= 20MPa,

z=zx=yz=0. Find the principal stresses.

Solution:
Formula:

But,

Hence;

Ans:
Exercise 2

Determine the principal stresses for the state of stress

MPa

Solution:
Formula:

Analysis:

ANS
Exercise 3
Using the data’s given on Exercise 1, x=70MPa, y=35MPa, xy= 20MPa,

z=zx=yz=0 and the principal stresses 1=79.1MPa, 2=25.9MPa and 3=0.

Considering E = 61GPa and v = 0.3, calculate 1 and 2 by using Mohr’s circle

equations
Solution:

Analysis:
Now using Mohr’s circle
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
The state of stress is given by x = 25P and y=5P plus shearing stresses xy. On

a plane at 45o counterclockwise to a the plane on which x acts the state of

stress is 50MPa tension and 5MPa shear. Determine the values of x,y,xy .

Solution:
Formula:
References
Metal Forming, Mechanics and Metallurgy, Third Edition, William F. Hosford and
Robert M. Caddell, Cambridge University

Metal Working Science and Engineering, Edward Mielnik, Part –I

Mechanical Metallurgy, SI Metric Edition, George E. Dieter, Mc-Graw Hill

Company

Applied Metal Forming Including FEM Analysis, Henry S. Valberg, Norwegian

University of Science and Technology

Modeling of Metal Forming and Machining Processes by Finite Element and Soft
Computing Methods Engineering Materials, Prakash M. Dixit and Uday S. Dixi
 END

THANK YOU!!

FOR ANY QUESTION WELCOME!