Chemical Engineering

Apparatus Design
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
 1. INTRODUCTION
Strength of Materials
 In materials science, the strength of a material is its
ability to withstand an applied load without failure.

 The difference between Statics and strength of

materials is:
• Statics:- studies about forces on a rigid body.
• Strength of Materials:- deals with forces and
deformations that result from their acting on a
material.
 Strength of Materials contd…
• A load applied to a mechanical member will
induce internal forces within the member called
stresses.
• The stresses acting on the material cause
deformation.
 Strength of Materials contd…
• Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known:
 The strength (load carrying capacity) of that member, its
deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability to
maintain its original configuration) can be calculated.
 1.1. Stress
 Uniaxial stress is expressed by

 Where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2].

 The area can be the undeformed area or the deformed area,

depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is
of interest.
 Stress Contd...
 Axial stress can be either compressive or tensile

 Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state

caused by an applied load that acts to reduce the length
of the material (compression member) along the axis of
the applied load.

 Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load

that tends to elongate the material along the axis of the
applied load, in other words the stress caused by Pulling
the material.
 Stress Contd…
 Shear stress is the stress state caused by the
combined energy of a pair of opposing forces
acting along parallel lines of action through
the material, in other words the stress caused
by faces of the material sliding relative to one
another.
 An example is cutting paper with scissors or
stresses due to torsional loading. The shear
stress is the punch force divided by the sheared
surface:
Stress Contd...
 Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stress
 Heat a piece of steel, wood, or concrete, and it will
expand. Cool the same piece, and it will shrink.
 Plot the strain as a function of temperature change, and
for most materials, you get a relatively straight line. The
slope of the line is called the thermal expansion
coefficient, Greek letter α.

• It tells us how much strain we can expect for a given

temperature change. From the graph, the slope.
• Substitute the definition of strain,
 Thermal Expansion and Thermal
Stress Contd...
and we have

• Rewrite the equation to solve for thermal deflection(𝛿):

Thermal Expansion and Thermal Stress
Contd….
 Stress due to a change in temperature is a
function of the thermal expansion coefficient,
Young's modulus (E), and the change in
temperature:
 1.2 Types of Loadings
 Transverse Loading - Forces applied perpendicular to
the longitudinal axis of a member.
 Applied vertically to the plane of the longitudinal axis
of a configuration, such as a wind load. It causes the
material to bend and rebound from its original
position, with inner tensile and compressive straining
associated with the change in curvature of the material.
 Types of Loadings Contd...
• Transverse loading causes the member to bend and
deflect from its original position, with internal tensile
and compressive strains accompanying the change in
curvature of the member.

• Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause

shear deformation of the material and increase the
transverse deflection of the member.
 Types of Loadings Contd…
 Axial loading - The applied forces are collinear
with the longitudinal axis of the member. The
forces cause the member to either stretch or
shorten.
 Types of Loadings Contd…
 Torsional loading - Twisting action caused by
a pair of externally applied equal and
oppositely directed forces (couples) acting on
parallel planes or by a single external couple
applied to a member that has one end fixed
against rotation.
 Types of Loadings Contd…
 Combined Loading
 Strength Terms

 Yield Strength is the lowest stress that produces a

permanent deformation in a material.
 In some materials, like aluminum alloys, the point
of yielding is difficult to identify, thus it is usually
defined as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic
strain. This is called a 0.2% proof stress.
 Compressive Strength is a limit state of
compressive stress that leads to failure in a material
in the manner of ductile failure or brittle failure
(rupture as the result of crack propagation, or
sliding along a weak plane).
• Distorting (If it is ductile)
• Fracturing (If it is brittle)
 Strength terms Contd…
 Tensile Strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of
tensile stress that leads to tensile failure.
 In the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that
failure, some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a
possible "neck" formation).
 Brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low
stress state).
 Tensile strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering
stress, but engineering stress is the most commonly used.

Ductile Failure
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Ksi is an abbreviation
for kilopounds per
square inch
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa
 Strength terms Contd...
 Fatigue Strength: is a measure of the strength of a
material or a component under cyclic loading, and is
usually more difficult to assess than the static strength
measures.

 Impact Strength: is the capability of the material to

withstand a suddenly applied load and is expressed in
terms of energy.
Deformation: Stress and Deflection
 Deformation of the material is the change in
geometry created when stress is applied (as a result
of applied forces, gravitational fields,
accelerations, thermal expansion, etc.).
 Deformation: Stress and Deflection
 Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that
expresses the trend of the deformation change among the
material field.

 Strain is the deformation per unit length. In the case of

uniaxial loading the displacements of a specimen (for example
a bar element) lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the
quotient of the displacement and the original length of the
specimen

 Deflection(𝛿) is a term to describe the magnitude to which a

structural element is displaced when subject to an applied
load.
1.4 Stress Strain diagram and Relationships
 Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its
previous shape after stress is released.
 The slope of this line is known as Young's modulus

 Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of

elastic deformation and is defined as unrecoverable
strain.
Stress Strain diagram and Relationships
Contd...

MILD STEEL
Buckling
 1.5 Combined Stresses
• Let us consider stress in the cylindrical wall of a boiler
submitted to internal pressure p.
 Combined Stresses Contd...

• The normal stresses, σx and σy, could be due to a

direct tensile force or to bending.
• If the normal stresses were compressive (negative),
the vectors would be pointing in the opposite sense,
into the stress element.
 Combined Stresses Contd…
• The shear stress could be due to direct shear, torsional
shear, or vertical shear stress.

• The double-subscript notation helps to orient the direction

of shear stresses.

• For example, τxy indicates the shear stress acting on the

element face that is perpendicular to the x-axis and
parallel to the y-axis.

• A positive shear stress is one that tends to rotate the stress

element clockwise
 Combined Stresses Contd…
• In the first figure, τxy is positive and τyx is
negative.
• Their magnitudes must be equal to maintain the
element in equilibrium.

• With the stress element defined, the objectives

of the remaining analysis are to determine the
Maximum Normal stress, and the planes on
which these stresses occur.
 Combined Stresses Contd…
• Maximum Normal Stresses
 The combination of the applied normal and shear
stresses that produces the maximum normal stress
is called the Maximum Principal Stress, σ1.

 The Minimum Principle Stress, σ2 equals:

 Combined Stresses Contd…
 The angle of inclination of the planes on which the
principal stresses act, called Principal Planes, can be
found from:
 Combined Stresses Contd…
Maximum Shear Stress
On a different orientation of the stress element, the
maximum shear stress will occur.
 Combined Stresses Contd…

• The angle of inclination of the element on which

the maximum occurs is computed as follows:

• The angle between the principal stress element and

the maximum shear stress element is always 45 o.
Example 1:
 Calculate principal stresses and maximum shear
stress for the given stress element.
 1.6 Failure Theories
• In the case of multidimensional stress at a point we
have a more complicated situation present. Since it is
impractical to test every material and every
combination of stresses σ₁, σ₂, and σ₃, a failure
theory is needed for making predictions on the basis of
a material’s performance on the tensile test., of how
strong it will be under any other conditions of static
loading.
 Failure Theories Contd…

Fig: Uni-axial stress

Fig: Multidimensional stress

 The “theory” behind the various failure theories is that

whatever is responsible for failure in the standard
tensile test will also be responsible for failure under all
other conditions of static loading.
 Failure Theories contd…
• The microscopic yielding mechanism in ductile
material is understood to be due to relative sliding of
materials atoms within their lattice structure. This
sliding is caused by shear stresses and is accompanied
by distortion of the shape of the part. Thus the yield
strength (shear strength) in shear Ssy is strength
parameter of the ductile material used for design
purposes.

 Generally used theories for Ductile Materials are:

 Maximum shear stress theory
 Maximum Strain Energy Theory
 Maximum distortion energy theory.(von Mises-Hencky’s
theory).
 Ductile Failure
• Evolution to failure:

“Cup and Cone” Fracture

• Resulting Fracture
Surfaces (Steel)

50 µm
Particles serve as void
nucleation sites.
1 µm = 1 X 10-6 m = 0.001 mm
 Failure Theories contd…
 There are four important failure theories:
Maximum Shear stress Theory:-

 This theory postulates that failure will occur if the

magnitude of the maximum shear stress in the part
exceeds the shear strength of the material determined
from uniaxial testing.
Example 2.
For an element in example 1. The material is tested in lab
by a standard uni-axial test and the ultimate tensile stress
is 80 Mpa . According to maximum shear stress theory is
the element going to fail or not?

From previous example τmax = 50MPa

 Failure Theories Cotd…
Maximum Strain Energy Theory:–
• This theory postulates that failure will occur when the strain
energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part
equals the strain energy per unit volume at the yield point in
uni-axial testing.
• Total strain energy per unit volume for multi dimensional stress
can be given by:
• E ⇒ modulus of elasticity
• v ⇒ Poisson ratio And for uni-axial test
 Failure Theories Cotd…
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory:–
 This theory is also known as shear energy theory or Vo
n Mises-Hencky theory.
 This theory postulates that failure will occur when the
distortion energy per unit volume due to the applied
stresses in a part equals the distortion energy per unit
volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing.
 The total elastic energy due to strain can be divided into
two parts: one part causes change in volume, and the other
part causes change in shape.
 Distortion energy is the amount of energy that is needed to
change the shape.
 Failure Theories Cotd…
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory Contd…
The total distortion energy for multi dimensional stress can be
given by:

• Poisson Ratio it is the ratio of

Ud ⇒ Distortion Energy lateral strain to longitudinal strain
v ⇒ Poisson Ratio
E ⇒ Modulus of Elasticity

For Uniaxial Test

 Failure Theories Cotd…
Maximum Normal Stress Theory:–

 This theory postulates that failure will occur if the

maximum normal stress in the part exceeds the ultimate
tensile stress of the material as determined from uniaxial
testing.
 This theory deals with brittle materials only.
• The maximum tensile stress should be less than or equal
to ultimate tensile stress divided by factor of safety.
• The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress
should be less than ultimate compressive stress divided
by factor of safety.
 1.8 Materials Property
Important Properties To be Considered

1. Mechanical Properties
(a) Strength: Tensile Strength
(b) Stiffness: Elastic Modulus (Young’s Modulus)
(c) Toughness: Fracture Resistance
(d) Hardness: Wear Resistance
(e) Fatigue Resistance
(f) Creep Resistance
2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Any special properties required; such as, thermal conductivity, electrical resistance,
magnetic properties
5. Ease of fabrication: forming, welding, and casting.
6. Availability in standard sizes- plates, sections, tubes
7. Cost
 1.8.1 Mechanical Properties

 Typical values of the mechanical properties of the more

common materials used in the construction of chemical
process equipment (Table 1.1.)
 1.8.1.1 Tensile Stress
 The tensile strength (tensile stress) is a measure of the
basic strength of a material.

 It is the maximum stress that the material will

withstand, measured by a standard tensile test.

 Proof stress is the stress to cause a specified permanent

extension, usually 0.1 per cent.
 1.8.1.2 Hardness
• The surface hardness, as measured in a standard test, is
an indication of a material’s ability to resist wear.
• This will be an important property if the equipment is
being designed to handle abrasive solids, or liquids
containing suspended solids which are likely to cause
erosion.
1.8.1.3 Fatigue
• Fatigue failure is likely to occur in equipment
subject to cyclic loading; for example, rotating
equipment, such as pumps and compressors, and
equipment subjected to pressure cycling.
 1.8.1.4 Creep
 Creep is the gradual extension of a material
under a steady tensile stress, over a
prolonged period of time.

 It is usually only important at high

temperatures; for instance, with steam and
gas turbine blades.

 For a few materials, notably lead, the rate of

creep is significant at moderate temperatures.

 Lead will creep under its own weight at

room temperature and lead linings must be
supported at frequent intervals.
 1.8.1.5 Effect of Temperature
• The tensile strength and elastic modulus of metals decrease
with increasing temperature.

• For example, the tensile strength of mild steel (low carbon

steel, C < 0.25 per cent) is 450 N/mm2 at 25oC falling to 210
at 500oC, and the value of Young’s modulus 200,000 N/mm 2
at 25oC falling to 150,000 N/mm2 at 500oC.

• If equipment is being designed to operate at high

temperatures, materials that retain their strength must be
selected. The stainless steels are superior in this respect to
plain carbon steels.
 1.8.2 Corrosion Resistance
 The conditions that cause corrosion can
arise in a variety of ways. Pitting
1. General Wastage of Material:- uniform
corrosion.
2. Galvanic Corrosion:- dissimilar metals in
contact. Uniform Corrosion
3. Pitting:- localized attack.
4. Intergranular Corrosion.
5. Stress Corrosion.
Galvanic
6. Erosion Corrosion. corrosion
7. Corrosion Fatigue.
8. High Temperature Oxidation.
9. Hydrogen Embrittlement.
Intergranular
 Corrosion-Fatigue is the result of the combined action of
an alternating or cycling stresses and a corrosive
environment.
 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack
formation in a corrosive environment. It can lead to
unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metals
subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated
temperature.