Basic Electrical Circuits

Basic Electrical Circuits

Ohm’s Law

 Ohm’s Law expresses the relationship between a

direct-current circuit’s current intensity (I), electromotive
force (E), and its resistance (R).
 The symbol Ω represents “ohms.”
 The German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854)
stated that current is directly proportional to voltage,
and inversely proportional to resistance.
Ohm’s Law

 Ohm's law states that the current (I) flowing in a circuit is

directly proportional to the applied voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the
temperature remains constant. Thus,

Current: Potential Difference: Resistance:

Ampere (A) Volts (V) Ohms (Ω)
Ohm’s Law

 Direct proportion means that changing one factor

results in a direct change to another factor in the
same direction and by the same magnitude.

If the voltage increases 25 percent, the current

increases 25 percent—in direct proportion (for a
given resistance). If the voltage decreases 25
percent, the current decreases 25 percent—in
direct proportion (for a given resistance).
1.5 Ohm’s Law

Inverse proportion means that increasing one factor

results in a decrease in another factor by the same
magnitude, or a decrease in one factor will result in
an increase of the same magnitude in another factor.

If the resistance increases by 25 percent, the current

decreases by 25 percent—in inverse proportion (for a
given voltage), or if the resistance decreases by 25
percent, the current increases by 25 percent—in
inverse proportion (for a given voltage).
Example

Question: 120V supplies a lamp that has a resistance of 192

ohms. What’s the current flow in the circuit?
(a) 0.50A (b) 0.60A (c) 1.30A (d) 2.50A

Answer: (b) 0.60A

Step 1: What’s the question? What’s “I?”
Step 2: What do you know? E = 120V, R = 192 ohms
Step 3: The formula is I = E/R
Step 4: The answer is I = 120V/192 ohms
Step 5: The answer is I = 0.625A
Example

Question: What’s the voltage drop over two 12 AWG

conductors (resistance of 0.20 ohms per 100 ft) supplying a
16A load located 50 ft from the power supply?
(a) 1.60V (b) 3.20V (c) 16V (d) 32V

Step 1: What’s the question? What’s “E ?”

VD
Example

Step 2: What do you know about the conductors?

I = 16A, R = 0.20 ohms. The NEC lists the alternating
current resistance of 1,000 ft of 12 AWG as 2 ohms [Chapter
9, Table 9]. The resistance of 100 ft is equal to 0.20 ohms.
Step 3: The formula is E = I x R .
VD

Step 4: The answer is E = 16A x 0.20 ohms

VD

Step 5: The answer is E = 3.20V

VD
Example

Question: What’s the voltage drop over two 12 AWG

conductors (resistance of 0.20 ohms per 100 ft) supplying a
16A load located 50 ft from the power supply?
(a) 1.60V (b) 3.20V (c) 16V (d) 32V
Answer: (b) 3.20V
Example

Question: What’s the resistance of the circuit conductors

when the conductor voltage drop is 3V and the current
flowing in the circuit is 100A?
(a) 0.03 ohms (b) 2 ohms (c) 30 ohms (d) 300 ohms
Answer: (a) 0.03 ohms
Step 1: What’s the question? What’s “R?”
Step 2: What do you know about the conductors?
E = 3V dropped, I = 100A
Step 3: The formula is R = E/I
Step 4: The answer is R = 3V/100A
Step 5: The answer is R = 0.03 ohms
 Example

Ohm’s Law

The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d.

of 20 V is applied. Determine the value of the resistance.
  𝑉 20 200
Solution: Resistance 𝑅= = = =25 Ω
𝐼 0.8 8
Example. The hot resistance of a 100 volt carbon filament
lamp is 250 ohms. Find the current taken
The bulb is having 250 ohms resistance and voltage is 100
volts. So according to Ohm's law
  𝑉 100
Solution : Current 𝐼= = =0.40 𝐴
𝑅 250
 Example

Ohm’s Law
Example. An electromagnet of resistance 12.4 ohms
requires current of 1.5 amperes to operate. Find the
required voltage.

Solution: Voltage  𝑉 =𝐼𝑅=1.5 𝑥 12.4=18 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Example. An electric iron takes 2.5 amperes at 230 volts.

What is its hot resistance?

Solution: Resistance  𝐼 = 𝑉 = 230 =92Ω

𝑅 2.5
Example

Ohm’s Law
If the resistance of the circuit is doubled while applied
voltage is held constant. The current will ______.
A. increase by half as much C. decrease to half as much
B. remains the same D. twice as much
Let us assume the base case: V=220V and R=110 ohms
Base Case Case 1
  𝑉   𝑉
𝐼= 𝐼=
𝑅 2𝑅
  220 𝑉   220𝑉
𝐼= =2 𝐴 𝐼= =1 𝐴
110 Ω 2(110 Ω )
PIE – Electrical Power

The PIE formula circle demonstrates the relationship

between power, current, and voltage, and is expressed in
the formula P = I x E . This formula can be transposed to I
= P/E or E = P/I . In order to use these formulas, two of
the values must be known.
Example

Question: What’s the power loss in watts for two

conductors that carry 12A and have a voltage drop of
3.60V?
(a) 4.30W (b) 24W (c) 43.20W (d) 432W
Answer: (c) 43.20W
Step 1: What’s the question? What’s “P?”
Step 2: What do you know? I = 12A, E = 3.60V.
Step 3: The formula is P = I x E .
Step 4: The answer is P = 12A x 3.60V.
Step 5: The answer is 43.20W.
Example

Question: What’s the current flow in amperes through a

7.50 kW heat strip rated 230V when connected to a 230V
power supply?
(a) 25A (b) 33A (c) 39A (d) 230A
Answer: (b) 33A
Step 1: What’s the question? What’s “I?”
Step 2: What do you know? P = 7,500W, E = 230V.
Step 3: The formula is I = P/E .
Step 4: The answer is I = 7,500W/230V.
Step 5: The answer is 32.60A.
Formula Wheel

 The formula wheel is a combination of the Ohm’s Law

and the PIE formula wheels. The formulas in the
formula wheel can be used for direct-current circuits or
alternating-current circuits with unity power factor.

 Power Factor is assumed Unity

Using the Formula

The formula wheel is divided into four sections with three

formulas in each one.
When working the formula wheel, the key to calculating
the correct answer is to follow these steps:
Step 1: Know what the question is asking for: I, E, R, or P.
Step 2: Determine the knowns: I, E, R, or P.
Step 3: Determine which section of the formula wheel
applies: I, E, R, or P and select the formula from that
section based on what you know.
Step 4: Work out the calculation.
Example

Question: The total resistance of two 12 AWG conductors,

75 ft long is 0.30 ohms, and the current through the circuit
is 16A. What’s the power loss of the conductors?
(a) 20W (b) 75W (c) 150W (d) 300W
Step 1: What’s the question? What’s the power loss of the
conductors “P?”
Step 2: What do you know about the conductors?
I = 16A, R = 0.30 ohms
Step 3: What’s the formula? P = I2 x R
Step 4: Calculate the answer: P = (16A)2 x 0.30 ohms =
76.80W.
Example

Question: The total resistance of two 12 AWG conductors,

75 ft long is 0.30 ohms, and the current through the circuit
is 16A. What’s the power loss of the conductors?
(a) 20W (b) 75W (c) 150W (d) 300W

Answer: (b) 75W

Known: I = 16A, Known: R of one conductor = 0.15 ohms*
*0.15 ohms determined by PEC Chapter 9, Tbl 9 (per ft method)
Power Losses of Conductor

Power in a circuit can be either “useful” or “wasted.”

Most of the power used by loads such as fluorescent
lighting, motors, or stove elements is consumed in useful
work. However, the heating of conductors, transformers,
and motor windings is wasted work. Wasted work is still
energy used; therefore, it must be paid for, so we call
wasted work “power loss.”
Example

Question: What’s the conductor power loss in watts for a

3.5 mm2 conductor that has a voltage drop of 3 percent in a
240V circuit, and carries a current flow of 24A?
(a) 17W (b) 173W (c) 350W (d) 450W

Step 1: What’s the problem asking you to find? What’s

wasted “P?”
Step 2: What do you know about the conductors?
I = 24A
E = 240V x 3%
E = 240V x 0.03
E = 7.20V
Example

Step 3: The formula is P = I x E .

Step 4: Calculate the answer: P = 24A x 7.20V = 172.80W.
The answer is 172.80W
Example

Question: What’s the conductor power loss in watts for a

3.5 mm2 conductor that has a voltage drop of 3 percent in a
240V circuit, and carries a current flow of 24A?
(a) 17W (b) 173W (c) 350W (d) 450W
Answer: (b) 173W
1.9 Cost of Power

Since electric bills are based on power consumed in watts,

we should understand how to determine the cost of power.
Example

Question: What does it cost per year (at 8.60 PHP per
kWh) for the power loss of two 305 mm2 circuit conductors
that have a total resistance of 0.30 ohms with a current flow
of 24A?
(a) 1,300 (b) 13,000 (c) 13,018 (d) 1,300
Answer: (c) PHP 13,018
Step 1: Determine the amount of power consumed:
 

P = (24A)2 x 0.30 ohms

P = 172.80W.
Example

Step 2: Convert the answer in Step 1 to kW:

P = 172.80W/1,000W
P = 0.1728 kW
Step 3: Determine the cost per hour:
(8.6 PHP per kWh) x 0.17280 kW = 1.486 PHP per hr
Step 4: Determine the dollars per day:
1.486 PHP per hr x (24 hrs per day) = 35.67 PHP per day
Step 5: Determine the PHP per year:
35.67 PHP per day x (365 days) = 13.018 PHP per year
Example

Question: What does it cost per year (at 8.60 PHP per
kWh) for the power loss of two 305 mm2 circuit conductors
that have a total resistance of 0.30 ohms with a current flow
of 24A?
(a) 1,300 (b) 13,000 (c) 13,018 (d) 1,300

Answer: (c) PHP 13,018

Cost at 8.60 PHP per kW hour
172.80W/1,000 = 0.1728 kW
PHP 8.60 x 0.1728 kW = 1.286 PHP/kW
1.286 x 24 hrs = 35.67 PHP per day
35.67 x 365 days = 13,018 PHP per year
1.10 Power Changes with the Square of the Voltage

The voltage applied to a resistor dramatically affects the

power consumed by that resistor. Power is determined by
the square of the voltage. This means that if the voltage is
doubled, the power will increase four times. If the voltage is
decreased 50 percent, the power will decrease to 25
percent of its original value.
Example

▶ Power Example at 230V

Question: What’s the power consumed by a 9.60 kW heat
strip rated 230V connected to a 230V circuit?
(a) 7.85 kW (b) 9.60 kW (c) 11.57 kW (d) 25 kW
Answer: (b) 9.60 kW
Step 1: What’s the problem asking you to find?
Power consumed by the resistance.
Step 2: What do you know about the heat strip?
You were given “P = 9.60 kW” in the statement of the
problem.
Example

▶ Power Example at 208V

Question: What’s the power consumed by a 9.60 kW heat
strip rated 230V connected to a 208V circuit?
(a) 7.85 kW (b) 9.60 kW (c) 11.57 kW (d) 208 kW

Answer: (a) 7.85 kW

Step 1: What’s the problem asking you to find?
The power consumed by the resistance.
Example

Step 2: What do you know about the heat strip?

R = E2/P
E = 208V
R = (230V x 230V)/9,600W
R = 5.51 ohms
Step 3: The formula to determine power is: P = E2/R .
Step 4: The answer is:
P = (208V)2/5.51 ohms
P = 7,851W or 7.85 kW
Example

▶ Power Example at 240V

Question: What’s the power consumed by a 9.60 kW heat

strip rated 230V connected to a 240V circuit?
(a) 7.85 kW (b) 9.60 kW (c) 10.45 kW (d) 11.57 kW
Answer: (c) 10.45 kW
Example

Step 1: What’s the problem asking you to find?

The power consumed by the resistance.
Step 2: What do you know about the resistance?
R = 5.51 ohms*
*The resistance of the heat strip is determined by the
formula R = E2/P .
E = Nameplate voltage rating of the resistance, 230V
P = Nameplate power rating of the resistance, 9,600W
R = E2/P
R = 230V2/9,600W
R = 5.51 ohms
Example

Step 3: The formula to determine power is:

P = E2/R
Step 4: The answer is:
P = (240V x 240V)/5.51 ohms
P = 10,454W
P = 10.45 kW
Example

Electrical Power
Example. A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a 250 V
supply. Determine (a) the current flowing in the bulb, and
(b) the resistance of the bulb.
  𝑃
Power:  𝑃=𝑉𝑥𝐼 from which, current 𝐼 =
𝑉
Solution:
  𝑃 100
(a) Current 𝐼 = 𝑉 = 200 =0.4 𝐴
  𝑃 250
(b) Resistance 𝑉 = = =625 Ω
𝑉 0.4
 Example

Electrical Power
Example. Calculate the power dissipated when a current of 4
mA flows through a resistance of 5 kΩ.
 
Power   )
) 
  𝑃= 𝐼 2
 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 80 𝑚𝑊
𝑅 =¿
Alternately, since and ) then from Ohm’s law, voltage

−3
Power  𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅= ( 4 𝑥 10 ) ( 5 𝑥 103 ) =20 V
 𝑃= 𝑉𝐼 =20 𝑥 4 𝑥 10−3 =80 𝑚𝑊
 Example

Electrical Power

Example. An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 a. What

current will flow when it is connected to a 240 v supply?
Find also the power rating of the kettle
  𝑉 240
Current, 𝐼= = =8 𝐴
𝑅 30
Power,  𝑃=𝑉𝐼 =240 𝑥 8=1920 𝑊 =1.92 𝑘𝑊

Basic Electrical Circuits

 Example

Electrical Power

Example. The hot resistance of a 240 V filament lamp is

960Ω. Find the current taken by the lamp and its power
rating.
  𝑉 240
Current, 𝐼 = = =0.25 𝐴
𝑅 960
Power,  𝑃=𝑉𝐼 =240 𝑥 0.25=60 𝑊

Basic Electrical Circuits

 Example

Electrical Power
Example. Two bulbs of 40W and 60W are connected in
series with an AC Power supply of 100V. Which bulb will
glow brighter
The voltage is a red herring here, because it's an issue of
proportion. At any voltage above zero (within the capacity
of the bulbs) one will be proportionately brighter. The 40
watt bulb hooked in parallel is normally dimmer because
the filament has a higher resistance than that of the 60-
watt bulb. But we're dealing with a series circuit here.

Basic Electrical Circuits

 Example

Electrical Power
Assuming the bulbs were manufactured to operate at 120
volts;
For the 60W bulb: For the 40W bulb:
  𝑃 60 𝑊   𝑃 40𝑊
𝐼= = =0. 5 𝐴 𝐼= = =0. 3333 𝐴
𝐸 120 𝑉 𝐸 120 𝑉

  𝐸 120 𝑉   𝐸 120𝑉
𝑅1 = = =240 Ω 𝑅1 = = =360 Ω
𝐼 0.5 𝐴 𝐼 0.333 𝐴
The 60 watt bulb has 240 The 40 watt bulb has 360
ohms resistance when ohms resistance when
burning burning
 Electrical Power  𝑃1=6 0𝑊
 𝑅1 =2 40 Ω
 𝑃2=4 0 𝑊
 𝑅2 =3 60 Ω
 𝐸=100 𝑉

The total resistance in series At 100 V supply;

 𝑅𝑇 =𝑅 1+ 𝑅 2   𝐸 100 𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = =
 𝑅 =2 40 Ω+360 Ω 𝑅 600 Ω
𝑇
 𝑅 =6 00 Ω  𝐼 𝑇 =0.1666 𝐴
𝑇

All points in a series circuit see

the same current so....
Electrical Power  𝑃1=6 0𝑊
 𝑅1 =2 40 Ω
 𝑃2=4 0 𝑊
 𝑅2 =3 60 Ω
 𝐸=100 𝑉

Let us look at the VOLTAGE DROP of each bulb;

For the 60 W bulb: For the 40 W bulb:

 𝐸1=𝐼 𝑇 𝑥 𝑅 1  𝐸2=𝐼 𝑇 𝑥 𝑅 2
 𝐸 =0.1666 𝐴 𝑥 240 Ω  𝐸 =0.1666 𝐴 𝑥 360 Ω
1 2

 𝐸 =40 𝑉  𝐸 =6 0 𝑉
1 2
Electrical Power

Let us look at the POWER drawn by each bulb;

For the 60 W bulb: For the 40 W bulb:

 𝑃1=𝐼 𝑇 𝑥 𝑉 1  𝑃2=𝐼 𝑇 𝑥 𝐸 2
 𝑃 =0.1666 𝐴 𝑥 40 Ω  𝑃 =0.1666 𝐴 𝑥 60 𝑉
1 2

 𝑃 =6.6666𝑊  𝑃 =1 0 𝑊
1 2

More watts burning means brighter light from the 40 watt

bulb.
Electrical Power

Two 120 volt light bulbs connected in series across 240 volts will?
A. burn at full brighhess C. burn out quickly
B. bum at half-brightness D. flicker with the cycle
Current Potential Difference
Unit: Ampere (A) Unit : Volts (Ω)

Power Resistance
Unit: Watts (W) Unit: Ohms (Ω)
Electrical Power and Energy
 Power in an electrical circuit is given by the product of
potential difference and current . The unit of power is the
watt, .

Hence:  𝑃=𝑉𝑥𝐼 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 (1)

From Ohm's law, . Substituting for in equation (1) gives:

  𝑉 𝑉2
𝑃=𝑉𝑥 =
𝑅 𝑅
Electrical Energy

Electrical energy = Power x time

If the power is measured in watts and the time in seconds
then the unit of energy is watt-seconds or joules. If the
power is measured in kilowatts and the time in hours then
the unit of energy is kilowatt-hours, often called the unit of
electricity. The electricity meter in the home records the
number of kilowatt-hours used and is thus an energy meter.
𝐸=𝑃 𝑥 𝑡
 

where,  𝐸= 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

 𝑃=𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
 𝑡 =𝑠
Electrical Energy

Example. A 12V battery is connected across a load having a

resistance of 40Ω. Determine the current flowing in the load,
the power consumed and the energy dissipated in 2 minutes.
  𝑉 12
Current, 𝐼 = = =0.3 𝐴
𝑅 40
Power consumed,  𝑃=𝑉𝐼 =12 𝑥 0.3=3.6 𝑊

Energy dissipated,  𝐸= 𝑃𝑥𝑡 =3.6 𝑥 ( 2 𝑥 60 ) =432 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒=1 𝑊 . 𝑠
 
Electrical Energy
Q. 1wh of energy is equivalent of what?
a. 3600watts
b. 3600joule
c. 4160joule
d. 840kcm

1𝑊 . 𝑠=1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
 

  3600 𝑠
1𝑊𝑥 1 h 𝑥 =3600 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1h
Electrical Energy

Example. An electric heater consumes 3.6 MJ when

connected to a 250 V supply for 40 minutes. Find the power
rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply.
  3.6 𝑥 10 6 𝐽
Power, 𝑃= =1500 =1500 𝑊
4 0 𝑥 60 𝑠
  𝑃 1500
Current taken, 𝐼= = =6 𝐴
𝑉 250

Hence the current taken from the supply is 6 A.

Resistance and Resistivity
 The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on four
factors, these being:

a) the length of the conductor,

b) the cross-sectional area of the conductor,
c) the type of material and
d) the temperature of the material.

Resistance, , is directly proportional to length, , of a

conductor, i.e. . Thus, for example, if the length of a piece of
wire is doubled, then the resistance is doubled.
Resistance and Resistivity
 Resistance, is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area,
a of a. conductor, i.e. . Thus, for example, if the cross-
sectional area of a piece of wire is doubled then the
resistance is halved.

Since and then . By inserting a constant of proportionality

into this relationship the type of material used may be
taken into account. The constant of proportionality is
known as the resistivity of the material and is given the
symbol (Greek rho). Thus,
  𝑙
𝑅=𝜌 𝑜h𝑚𝑠 Ω
𝑎
Resistance and Resistivity

  𝑙
𝑅=𝜌 𝑜h𝑚𝑠 Ω
𝑎
Where,  𝑅=𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)

 𝜌=𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( Ω . 𝑚)
 𝑙=𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h (𝑚)
  𝑎 =𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ¿

The value of the resistivity is that resistance of a unit cube

of the material measured between opposite faces of the
cube.
Resistance and Resistivity

Example. Calculate the resistance of a 2 km length of

aluminum overhead power cable if the cross-sectional area
of the cable is if 100 mm2. Take the resistivity of aluminum
to be 0.03 x 10-6 Ω-m.
  1 000 𝑚
Given: 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h ( 𝑙 ) =2 𝑘𝑚 𝑥 =2000 𝑚
1 𝑘𝑚
  2 1 𝑚2 −6 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ( 𝑎 )=100 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 2
=100 𝑥 10 𝑚
1000 𝑚𝑚
−6
 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝜌)=0.03 𝑥 10 (Ω . 𝑚)
Solution:
  𝑙 −6 2000 𝑚  
𝑅 = 𝜌 =0.03 𝑥 10 (Ω .𝑚 ) =0.6 Ω
𝑎 −6
100 𝑥 10 𝑚
2
Resistance and Resistivity

Example. Calculate the cross-sectional area, in mm 2, of a

piece of copper wire, 10 m in length and having a resistance
of 0.25 Ω. Take the resistivity of copper as 0.02 x 10 -6 Ω-m.
  𝑙
Solution: 𝑎=𝜌 𝑅
  −6 (10 𝑚 )
𝑎=(0.02 𝑥 10 Ω . 𝑚 ) 𝑥
(0.25 Ω )
6 2
 
−6 2 (1 𝑥 10 𝑚 𝑚 )
𝑎=(3.2 𝑥 10 𝑚 ) 𝑥
(1 𝑚2 )
𝑎=3.2 𝑚𝑚2
 
Resistance and Resistivity

Example. The resistance of 1.5 km of wire of cross-sectional

area 0.17 mm2 is 150 Ω. Determine the resistivity of the
wire.
  𝑅𝑎
Solution: 𝜌=
𝑙
  (150 Ω 𝑥 0.17 𝑚𝑚 2)
𝜌 =(150 Ω ) 𝑥
(1000 𝑚 )
(1.5 𝑘𝑚 ) 𝑥
(1 𝑘𝑚)

𝜌=0.017 𝑥 𝑥 10− 6
 
Temperature and Coefficient of Resistance

 In
general, as the temperature of a material increases, most
conductors increase in resistance, insulators decrease in
resistance, whilst the resistance of some special alloys
remain almost constant.

The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material is

the increase in the resistance of a 1 Ω resistor of that
material when it is subjected to a rise of temperature of
1°C. The symbol used for the temperature coefficient of
resistance is a (Greek alpha).
Temperature and Coefficient of Resistance

If the resistance of a material at 0°C is known the resistance

at any other temperature can be determined from:
 𝑅= 𝑅 (1+ 𝛼 0 𝑡 )
0
Where:
 𝑅0 =𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 0 ° 𝐶
 𝑅=𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡
 𝛼 =𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 0 ° 𝐶
 𝑡 =𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Temperature and Coefficient of Resistance

Example. A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 100 Ω

when its temperature is 0°C. Determine its resistance at
70°C if the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper
at 0°C is 0.0043/°C.

Solution:  𝑅100 =100 Ω [1+ ( 0.0043/ ° 𝐶 ) ( 70 ° 𝐶 ) ]

 𝑅 100 =100 [1+0.301]

 𝑅100 =100 (1.301)

 𝑅100 =1 30.1 Ω
Temperature and Coefficient of Resistance

Example. An aluminum cable has a resistance of 27 Ω at a

temperature of 35 °C. Determine its resistance at 0°C. Take
the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C to be
0.0038/ °C.
  𝑅
Solution: 𝑅0 =
(1+𝛼 0 𝑡 )  
  27 Ω
𝑅0 =
0 .0038
(1+ 𝑥 35 ° 𝐶 )  
°𝐶
  27 Ω 27 Ω
𝑅0 = = =23.83 Ω
(1+0.133)   (1.133)  
RME Exam Question:
The copper field coils of a motor was measured at 21⁰C and
found to have a resistance of 68 ohms. After the motor has run
for a given time, the resistance is found to be 90 ohms. What is
the hot temperature of the winding?

Unknown:   𝑡 2 =?
Solution:   𝑅 2 = 𝑇 +𝑡 2
𝑅1 𝑇 +𝑡 1
 9 0 Ω 234.5+𝑡 2
=
6 8 Ω 234.5+35 ° 𝐶
90 Ω
 
𝑡2 =
[( 68 Ω ) ]
𝑥 ( 234 .5+35 ° 𝐶 ) − 234.5

 
Resistance Combination
Resistances of different values can be combined in the
following manners.
A. Series Combination
B. Parallel Combination
C. Series-Parallel combination or Mixed connection
Resistance Combination - Series
Series Combination. In case of series combinations the
different resistor are connected as shown in the figure to
form a chain.
These are having the following characteristics
A. The current through every individual is same i.e. being
only one path of current, the current is same.

  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐼=
𝑅 𝑒𝑞
Resistance Combination - Series

B. The equivalent resistance of the circuit is the sum of the

resistances connected in series as in the figure shown.

 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =𝑅 1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅 3 +… … … … … .... 𝑅 𝑛

C. In this circuit the total voltage is divided in the individual

resistances, or the sum of the individual voltage drops of
different resistances is equal to the voltage fed to the
circuit.
Let, 𝑉   1=𝐼 𝑅1 , 𝑉   2=𝐼 𝑅2 , 𝑉   3 =𝐼 𝑅 3

so, 𝑉
  =𝑉 1 +𝑉 2 +𝑉 3 +.. … … … … … … .. 𝑉 𝑛
Resistance Combination - Series
Example. Three members, R1 = 2 ohms, R2 = 3 ohms and R3 =
5 ohms are connected series across a 30-volt DC source.
What is the total current?
Solving for total resistance
=2Ω
 𝑅 𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 1 + 𝑅 2 + 𝑅 3

 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =2 Ω+3 Ω +5 Ω
=3Ω
 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =10 Ω

Solving for total current =5Ω

  𝑉 30 𝑉
𝐼= = =3.0 𝐴
𝑅 10 Ω
Resistance Combination - Series
Example. Three resistors R1 = 2 ohms, R2 = 3 ohms, and R3 =
5 ohms are connected in series across a DC source. If the
circuit current is 3 amps, what is the source voltage?
Solving for total resistance
=2Ω
 𝑅 𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 1 + 𝑅 2 + 𝑅 3

 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =2 Ω+3 Ω +5 Ω
=3Ω
 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =10 Ω

Solving for total voltage =5Ω

 
Resistance Combination - Series
Example. Two resistors R1 = 2 ohms and R2 = 3 ohms are
connected in series across a DC supply. If the voltage across
R1 is 10 volts, what is the total voltage?
𝐼 
Solving for total resistance =2Ω
𝑉  1=10𝑉
 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =𝑅 1 + 𝑅2
𝑅
  1 =2 Ω
 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =2 Ω+3 Ω
𝑉 
 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =5 Ω
𝑅
  2 =3 Ω

Solving for total current

  𝑉 10 𝑉 Solving for total voltage
𝐼= = =5 𝐴
𝑅 2Ω  
Resistance Combination - Series
Current
The value is the same in every
part of the circuit. An ammeter
can verify this.
 

Voltage
 Doesnot remain constant throughout the circuit. Values can be
measured across each resistor or load. This is called the voltage
drop. The total voltage is equal to the sum of all the voltage
drops in that circuit. A voltmeter can verify this. The formula is:
 
Resistance Combination - Series

 All loads are connected one after

another in a series. If a conductor
or a load is broken, it opens the
circuit.
 This condition does not allow the
current to complete the circuit
and makes the entire circuit
dead.
 A good example of this is the old
design for holiday lights. If one
bulb was burned out, the entire
string would not light.
 RME Board Exam Questions
1) In a series circuit, the current is.
A. Proportional to the C. Constant
resistance
B. Different in different D. Pulsating alternating current
resistors
2) In a series circuit _____ is common.
A. Resistance C. Voltage
B. Current D. Wattage
3) In a series circuit, the total resistance is _________.
A. The sum of the C. The sum of all resistances
reciprocals of all
resistances
B. The average of all D. Smaller than the smallest
resistances resistance
Resistance Combination - Parallel
Parallel Combination. In parallel combination if the starting
of resistors are connected at one place and endings are on
the other end, then it is called parallel combination.
Solving for total resistance
Resistance Combination - Parallel
This combination has the following characteristics;
A. Voltage
The voltage across each resistance is same.
 

B. Current
Current has a number of paths to follow. If all paths are
available, the current divides itself between the branches back
to the source. If a path is open, the current divides between the
remaining available paths and goes back to the source.
The total current is the sum of individual resistance branch
currents  
Resistance Combination - Parallel
C. Resistance

 The reciprocal of the total

resistance of the circuit is the
sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistances
connected in the circuit.

 11 1 1 1
= + + +. … … … . ohms
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅 3 𝑅𝑛

“The total resistance of a parallel circuit is less than the smallest

resistor in the circuit.”
Resistance Combination - Parallel
C. Resistance
 The reciprocal of the total resistance of the circuit is the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual resistances connected in
the circuit.
 11 1 1 1
= + + +. … … … .. … … . ohms
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅 3 𝑅𝑛

Resistors with Unequal Values: Calculating RT is more

complicated and is shown below:
 
ohms
Resistance Combination - Parallel

Example. Two motors R1 - 3 ohms and R2 = 6 ohms are

connected in parallel, what is the total resistance of the
combination?
Solution: 1 2
  𝑅 1 𝑥 𝑅2
 1 1 1 𝑅=
= + 6=𝑅𝑥
  3 𝑅 1+ 𝑅 2
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
 11 1 6   3𝑥6
 
𝑅= 𝑅=
= +
𝑅 3 6 3 3+6

 1 2+1   18
=  𝑅=2 Ω 𝑅= =2 Ω
𝑅 6 9
Resistance Combination - Parallel

Example. What is the equivalent resistance of three

resistors of 5 ohms, 6 ohms and 10 ohms connected in
parallel?
Solution:
 1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅 3
 11 1 1
= + +
𝑅 5 6 10
 130
= =2.14 Ω
𝑅 14
Resistance Combination - Parallel

Example. Find the equivalent resistance of six resistor each

equal to 2.4 ohms connected in parallel.
Let,
Let, n = number of equal resistors connected in parallel
R = resistance of each resistor
  𝑅
Solution: 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑛
  2.4
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = =0.40 Ω
6
 RME Board Exam Questions
1) In a parallel circuit , the total resistance is ____.
A. the sum of all the C. larger than the largest
resistances resistance in the combination
B. the reciprocal of all the D. Smaller than smallest
resistances resistance in the
combination
2) Electrical appliances are connected in parallel because it ___.
A. Makes the operation of C. Is a simple circuit
appliances independent of
each other
B. Results in reduced power D. Draws less current
loss
 RME Board Exam Questions
3) Which of the following is not true?
A. Equal currents flow in C. The total current in a parallel
the branches of parallel circuit is the sum of the
circuits. branch currents.
B. The total resistance of a D. In a parallel circuit, there is
parallel circuit is less more than one path for the
than the smallest current flow.
resistor in the circuit.
4) In parallel circuit, the voltage across each branch is ______
the source voltage.
A. Less than C. Equal to
B. Greater than D. All of these
Resistance Combination – Series Parallel

For series-parallel connection, determine first the

equivalent resistance of the parallel connected group.

For parallel-series connection, determine first the

equivalent resistance of the series connected branch.
Resistance Combination – Series Parallel
Example. A 4-ohm resistor is connected in series with a
parallel combination of a 3-ohm resistor and a 6-ohm
resistor, what is the total resistance of the series-parallel
combination.
=4 Ω
Equivalent resistance of
parallel combination
  𝑅2 𝑥 𝑅3
𝑅2,3 = =3 Ω =6 Ω
𝑅 2+ 𝑅 3
  3𝑥 6
𝑅2,3 = =2 Ω
3+6
Total Resistance
 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅 12 =4+ 2=6 Ω
End of Presentation …..