Points to remember

At the end of the topic, you will know about:

Major ores of iron
Places where iron is found in Nepal
Process of extraction of iron from different ores
Different forms of iron
Types of steel with percentage composition
Manufacturing of steel by Bessemer and open hearth
process
Process of rusting & heating treatment of steel

1
 IRON(फलाम)
Occurrence (Ore) In Nepal
1. Haematite- Fe2o3(major ore) 1. Phulchowki
2. Magnetite- Fe304 2. Ramechhap
3. Iron pyrite- Fes2 3. Baitadi
4. Limonite- 2Fe2o3.3H2o 4. Parbat
5. Siderite - FeCo3
6. Copper pyrite- CuFes2
1 2

2
Steps involved in the metallurgy
Iron is generally extracted from its major ore
Haematite. It involves the following steps:

1. Crushing and pulverization: The big lumps of iron ore

are broken down into small pieces by using jaw crusher
or hammer. Then, the pieces are further converted into
fine powder with the help of ball mill or stamp mill.
2. Concentration( dressing of ore): The pulverised ore is
washed with water and concentrated by gravity
seperation method, to remove lighter earthy impurities.

3
Contd.
3. Roasting or calcination: The concentrated ore is heated
with little coke in the reverberatory furnace in presence
of excess air. The following changes occurs:
a) Moisture is removed
2Fe2o3.3H20 2Fe2o3 + 3H20
b) Sulphur,carbon, Arsenic, Phosphorous etc are removed
as oxide
P4 + 5O2 2P2O5
4As + 5O2 2As2O5
S + O2 SO2

Contd.4
c) If iron carbonate is present, it decompose to form ferrous
oxide. The ferrous oxide is converted into ferric oxide.
FeCO3 FeO + CO2
4FeO + O2 2Fe2O3( Cant form slag/stable)

There is also probability of combination of ferrous oxide

with silica to form a slag of ferrous silicate and loss of
iron takes place.
FeO + SiO2 FeSiO3
Slag (Iron Silicate)

Contd.. 5
4.Smelting or reduction: The calcined or roasted ore is reduced to
iron in a blast furnace by smelting or carbon reduction process.

6
Contd..
Description about furnace:
The blast furnace is tall cylindrical furnace
made up of steel and is internally lined with
fire proof bricks. At the top the furnace, it is
provided with double cup and cone
arrangement which helps to introduce charge
from top without letting any gas to escape
out. The furnace is also provided with small
pipes called tuyeres to pass the hot air inside
furnace.
The charge consisting of
limestone, coke and ore(1:4:8) is passed
through the mouth of the furnace .At the
same time preheated air at about 700°c is
sent upward from the tuyere. The hot air get
in contact with the charge falling downward
inside the furnace and following reaction
occurs at different zones.
On the basis or range of temperature and
nature of chemical reactions, the region of
the blast furnace can be classified into the
following zones.
7
Contd..
a. Zone of combustion (1500 - 1700oC)
This region lies near the hearth of furnace. Combustion of
carbon takes place in this zone and being exothermic,
large amount of heat is produced.
C + O2 CO2 +97kcal
As Co2 moves up, combine with layer of hot coke and
gets reduced to CO. this reaction is endothermic which
causes the gradual decrease in temperature as we go from
bottom to top.
CO2 + C 2CO -58.8k cal
b. Zone of fusion (1200-1300oC)
This region lies above the zone of combustion. Carbon
dioxide gas produced in the zone of combustion rises up
meets with hot coke and carbon dioxide is reduced to
carbon monoxide as:   8

Contd..
 CO2 + C 2CO - 58kcal
Iron combine with coke to form cementite.
3Fe + C Fe 3C
If ferric oxide (Fe2O3) is present, it is reduced in this zone to
give iron.
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe
Molten
+ 3CO
This molten iron fuses with sulphur, phosphorous and silicon
and hence the region is called zone of fusion

c. Zone of slag formation (800-1000 oC)

This region lies almost in the middle part of furnace. Limestone
present here is decomposed according to following reaction.
CaCO3 CaO + CO 2

Contd… 9
 The temperature of this zone is about 800oC to 1000oC.
The lime produced by the decomposition of CaCO 3
combines with silica (which acts as impurities in the ore)
to form slag.
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
impurities Slag

d. Zone of reduction (500 - 700oC)

It is the uppermost part of the furnace where ferric oxide is
reduced to spongy iron by carbon monoxide. The iron
formed will be spongy because the temperature is not
sufficient to melt the iron.
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO
spongy Iron

10
Contd
 At the end of smelting, the spongy iron melts and two
separate layer are formed at the bottom of the furnace. The
molten metal is removed from metal outlet and is allowed
to solidify. The iron obtained is called pig iron. It is
remelted in a vertical furnace and remolded to get cast
iron.
End of extraction

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DIFFERENT FORM OF IRON
Cast/pig Iron Steel Wrought
Iron
1. Contains 2-5% 1. 0.2- 2% carbon 1. May contain upto
carbon 0.25% carbon
2. Is hard and brittle 2. Hard and tensile 2. Soft and ductile
3. M.p. is about 3. M.p. is about 13- 3. M.p. is about
1200°c 1400°c 1500°c

4. Doesn’t rust 4. Depend upon 4. Rust easily

easily quality of steel
5. Can’t be welded 5. Can be welded 5. Can be welded
6. Are used to make 6. Are used to make 6. Are used to make
pipes, heavy Knife,Sword, chains , core of
machines etc. Utensils etc magnet etc.

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 STEEL
Steel is an alloy of iron containing 0.2 to 2% carbon as
one of the constituents and traces of sulphur, phosphorous
along with some metals.

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Manufacture of steel by Bessemer process

Bessemer process:
This process was developed by Henry Bessemer in 1856. The
cast iron is taken in a pear shaped vessel called Bessemer
converter. A number of holes called tuyeres are provided at the
bottom of the converter to pass the blast of pre-heated air.
Depending upon the nature of impurities the internal lining of
Bessemer converter is made of acidic material such as silica
(SiO2) or basic materials such as dolomite. Accordingly,
Bessemer process is of two types.
a. Acidic bessemer process
b. Basic bessemer process
14
Contd..
Contd..
15
a. Acidic Bessemer process
If cast iron used for the manufacture of steel consists basic impurities such as Mn
or if the phosphorous content is low, acidic Bessemer process is adopted. In this
process internal lining of converter is carried out by an acidic material such as SiO 2.
Cast iron obtained from the blast furnace is put into the converter and blast of pre-
heated air is admitted through tuyeres at the bottom. The impurities of cast iron are
oxidised and combine with SiO 2 to give slag.

2Mn + O2 2MnO
MnO + SiO2 MnSiO 3 (Slag)
2C + O2 2CO

The last to be oxidized is carbon which is oxidized to carbon monoxide with the
production of blue flame at the mouth of the converter. When the blue flame dies out,
it indicates the completion of oxidation of impurities. When the blue flame dies,
calculated quantity of spiegeleisen (Mn + Fe + C) is added and blast of air is
continued so as to mix it thoroughly. Little Al or ferrosilicon is used to remove
entrapped O2, NO2, CO2 etc(inhibit the rusting). Steel is poured out by tilting the
converter and moulded into blocks.

16
Contd..
b. Basic Bessemer process
If cast iron used for the manufacturer of steel consists acidic impurities or
phosphorus content is high, basic Bessemer process is adopted. In this
process, internal lining of Bessemer converter is made by basic material
such as dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3). Cast iron obtained from the blast
furnace is put into Bessemer converter and blast of pre-heated air is
admitted through tuyeres at the bottom. The phosphorus is oxidised to P 2O5
which combines with basic lining to form slag.

P4 + 5O2 2P2O5
MgCO3 MgO + CO2
3MgO + P2O5 Mg3(PO4)2 (Gilchrist slag)
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
CaO + P2O5 Ca3(PO4) Thomas slag
2C + O2 2CO

17
Contd..
 The Gilchrist slag and Thomas can be used as phosphate fertilizer. If Si and
Mn are present these are also oxidized. Carbon is last to be oxidized. When
the impurities are completely combusted or when the blue flame at the top
of converter dies, calculated quantity of spiegeleisen (Mn + Fe + C) is
added and a blast of air is passed for some time to ensure mixing. Then
steel is poured out by tilting the converter.
 Advantage of Bessemer process
i. The process is quick to run and it completes within 15 to 20 minute.
ii. It is relatively inexpensive.
 Disadvantage of Bessemer process
i. Quality of steel obtained by this process varies from batch to batch.
ii. It can't remove the impurities completely. Thus produced steel rusts
easily.

End of bessemer process

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Manufacturing of steel by open hearth
process
Open Hearth Process
This process was developed by Siemen and Martin. This is the
modern process for the manufacture of steel. For the manufacture of
steel by this process, 70-80% cast iron, 20-30% scrap iron and little
haematite is used. The charge is heated by passing producer gas (CO
+ N2 in 1:2) It works on the following principle:
1. Regenerative type of heating system is used.
2. In this process, oxidation of impurities is carried out by using
haematite.
3. Percentage of carbon is brought down by adding low grade scrap
iron/ wrought iron.
Depending upon the nature of impurities, the open hearth process
may be acidic process or basic process.
19
contd
 Flue gas

Fig: open hearth furnace

A. Acidic Process
If impurities present in the iron are basic in nature(presence of
Mn) or the phosphorus content is low, acidic process is applied. In
acidic process, the hearth of the furnace is lined with acidic
material such as SiO2. The impurities are oxidized by haematite
ore.
20
contd
 3Mn + Fe2O3 3MnO + 2Fe
3Si + 2Fe2O3 3SiO2 + 4Fe
MnO + SiO2 MnSiO3 (Slag)
A small quantity of charge is drawn out time to time to
analyze the carbon content in the mixture. After adjusting the
carbon content required, calculated quantity of spiegeleisen
(Mn + Fe + C) is added to obtain desire quality of steel.
B. Basic Process
If impurities present in cast iron are acidic in nature and
consists more quantity of phosphorus then basic process is
adopted. In this process, the hearth of the furnace is lined
with basic materials such as dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3). The
impurities are oxidised by haematite ores.
21
contd
 6P + 5Fe2O3 10Fe + 3 P2O5
3P4 + 10Fe2O3 20Fe + 6P2O5
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
3CaO + P2O5 Ca3(PO4)2 ( thomas Slag)
3S + 2Fe2O3 4Fe + 3SO2
3C + Fe2O3 2Fe + 3CO
The samples are drawn from time to time and chemical test is
carried out. When the test shows completion of process, the
calculated quantity of spiegeleisen (Mn + Fe + C) is added and
stirred thoroughly. The molten steel is taken out and poured
into mould to prepare steel of desired shapes.
The open-hearth process has following advantage
1. It is modern process.
22
Contd..
2. Loss of iron as slag is very little. (Loss of iron as slag in
open hearth process is about 4% while that in Bessemer
process is about 15%)
3.Temperature can be easily controlled because heat is
supplied from external sources.
4. The overall process is carried out smoothly within about 8
to 10 hours. Therefore, the product obtained will is
remarkably uniform.
5. Scrap iron can be used for the preparation of steel. Open
hearth furnace works on the regenerative principle of heat
economy so the overall process is economical.

End of open hearth process

23
Differentiate between Open hearth and bessemer process

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 Heat Treatment of Steel

The phenomenon of heating and cooling solid form of steel under

controlled conditions so as to modify certain physical properties without
changing chemical composition is called heat treatment of steel.
Particularly, heat treatment of steel develops following changes in the
steel.
1. Refinement of structure
2. Removal of imprisoned gases
3. Change in internal stresses.

Some heat treatment processes are given below:

a. Hardening (Quenching): The process of heating steel below its melting
point and cooling it suddenly (quickly) either plunging in oil or in water is called
hardening or quenching. The steel thus obtained is called hardened or quenched
steel.
Hardening increases the resistance to tear, ability to cut other metals
and brittleness of steel. Such types of steels are used for cutting tools.
25
Contd..
 b. Annealing (softening): The process of heating steel to bright
redness(below M.p.) followed by slow cooling is called
annealing. The steel thus obtained is soft, weak and ductile. It
removes strain in the steel.
This type of steel is soft and ductile and in suitable for
fabrication process.

c. Tempering of steel: If hardened or quenched steel is heated

to a temperature much below redness (200-350oC) and then
cooled slowly, it neither becomes too hard nor too brittle. The
process is called tempering of steel and steel thus obtained is
called tempered steel. Tempering is quenching followed by
annealing of steel.
The tempered steel is used for making razor blades, knifes, axe
etc.
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 Theory of rusting
When iron is exposed to air for certain time, Iron is oxidised , resulting in
the formation of loosely bonded reddish brown layer called rust. This
process of formation of rust is called rusting. Commonly rust is represented
as, Fe203.XH2O.
The theory of rusting is best explained by electrochemical theory.
Electrochemical theory suggest that rusting doesn’t occurs by direct contact
of Iron and moist oxygen. Instead it is due to tiny electric cell set up
between irregular surface of iron and the impurities( Sn, Au- less
electropositive metal), where gases such as CO2,H2S,SO2 etc act as an
electrolytic solution.
Following electrode reaction takes place at Iron and produce rust.
At Anode
Iron is oxidised to Fe++
Fe Fe++ + 2e-

27
At cathode
Oxygen is reduced to hydroxyl ion(OH-) and
H+ ion into hydrogen. The hydrogen atom on
iron surface reduces dissolved oxygen into
H2O.
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH-
2H+ + 2e- 2[H]
4[H] +O2 2H2O
( H+ is obtained from dissociation of H2O and
H2Co3 present in atmosphere)
Further, The ferrous and Hydroxyl ion combine
to form ferrous hydroxide. On atmospheric
oxidation, Fe(OH)2 is converted to ferric
hydroxide.
Fe++ + 2OH- 4Fe(OH)2
4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O +O2 4Fe(OH)3
Fig: process of rusting
Finally, Ferric hydroxide on exposure to open
air dissociate to form hydrated ferric oxide
which is called rust.
2Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3.3H2O
Contd. 28
(Rust)
 Prevention of Rusting
a. Cathodic protection or sacrificial protection:
Zn Zn ++ + 2e- (takes place due to lower reduction potential)
Fe Fe ++ + 2e- (does not take place)
i) Zinc layer forms a barrier between iron surface and atmosphere.
ii) If the rusting environment is set up, it is not the iron but zinc which undergoes
corrosion. This is due to lower reduction potential of zinc. Galvanization can also be
done.
b. By the formation of protective barrier:
i) Coating of oil and grease may be used on tools and machinery parts to prevent
from rusting.
ii) Thin coating of paint, enamel, lacquer, varnishes may be used to prevent from
rusting. (Barrier protection)
iii) By passing steam on the red hot iron (Barf's protection)
c. By the formation of alloys
d. Uses of corrosion inhibitors: using alkali

29
 Questions
1. What is spiegeleisen? Mention its function in manufacture of steel.
Ans: Spiegelisen is a alloy of iron containing certain amount of carbon and
Manganese. The function of spiegeleisen is to get the desired quality of
steel. The nature of steel depend upon the amount of spiegeleisen added.
2. What is mohr’s salt?
Ans: It is a double salt of ferrous sulphate and ammonium sulphate and is
written in formula as FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O
3. What happens when iron is passed through steam?
Ans: Iron is not attacked by water at ordinary temperature. But when steam is
passed over heated iron, ferrosoferric oxide and hydrogen gas is formed.
3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + H2
steam 850° (red hot)

4. What is passivity of Iron?

Ans: Concentrated nitric acid makes Iron passive due to formation of thin layer
of ferrosoferric oxide( Fe3O4) on its layer. This activity of making the iron
passive using oxidising agents is called passivity of Iron.
3Fe + 8HNO3 Fe3O4 + 8NO2 + 4H2O
30
4. Write about biological importance of iron
Ans: Iron plays an important role in the transfer of oxygen by the
cytochrome, molecule involved in energy production. Iron is involved
in the formation of connective tissues of several neurotransmitters in the
brain. The important role of iron is to strengthen the immune system.
Due to presence of iron (haemoglobin) human blood is red.
5. Draw the structure of ferric cholride and write its use.
Ans: Cl Cl Cl
Fe Fe
Cl Cl Cl

• It is used as antiseptic and coagulant

• used as mordant in dyeing.
6. Write the use of mohr’s salt.
• Ans: used as primary standard solution in volumetric analysis.
• used as reducing agent.
31