GE ES Lecture For Midterm

GE-ES 3 units
(Lecture)
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Prepared By:
PRINCES EUNICE C. DENOSTA-CS-FACULTY
PSU Vision
A premier state university in southeast Asia that provides

excellent and relevant higher education for sustainable
development.
PSU Mission
The Palawan State University is committed to upgrade

quality of life of the people by providing higher education
through excellent instruction, research, extension,
production services and transnational collaboration and
innovation for sustainable development.
PSU CORE VALUES
Excellence, Leadership, Advocacy for

Sustainable Development, Social
Responsibility, Teamwork, Integrity,
Creativity.

Course Description
Interrelationship among Components of the natural world;

environmental problems, their causes associated risks, preventive
measures and alternatives solutions.
Course Outcome
After Completing the course, the students shall be able to :

1. Demonstrate and understand relationships of the various levels of
environmental organization.
2. Initiate possible mitigating measures in an environmental problems in a
scientific context.
3. Apply the concepts learned to real life situation particularly in conserving
our natural environment and resources.
COURSE POLICIES
1. Class attendance is mandatory. A 10-minutes grace period will be given to a student.

However, a student will not be accepted beyond the given grace period. Moreover, if a
student incurred three consecutive late. He / She will be marked as absent.
2. When a student made 7 consecutive absences, he/she shall be dropped from the
course.
3. There will be no make-up test for missed quizzes, assignments and examinations
unless circumstances beyond the students control prevent participation at the scheduled
time. An excuse letter signed by the Dean should be presented before a make-up test
will be given to students who were absent during the time it was given.
Course Policies
4. Deduction of points will be given for every late submission of the requirements. The
corresponding deduction shall be agreed upon by the class at the start of the semester
and/or upon teacher’s discretion.
5. Students are supposed to be in proper uniform on designated days.
6. CLAYGO- Clean As You Go.
Grading System
Class Participation------------------------------------------20%
Quizzes--------------------------------------------------------15%
Assignments--------------------------------------------------10 %
Project----------------------------------------------------------20%
Midterm/Final Examination---------------------------- 35%
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO:
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
What is Environmental Science?
 Is the study of Interactions among physical, chemical, and biological components of the
environment.
 An interdisciplinary field focuses on pollution and dreadful conditions of the environment related to
human activities and their impact on biodiversity and sustainability.
HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Three (3) “Revolutions” are become significant in the development of environmental science these are:
 Agricultural Revolution
 Industrial-Medical Revolution
 Information-Globalization Revolution
Agricultural Revolution
 Started about 10,000 years ago.
 Gradual move from nomadic lifestyle of
hunter-gatherers to the farming of
domesticated animals and plants.
 Led to human population growth.
Ancient Civilization:
 Ancient Rome – limited awareness of
(or commitment to) environmental
dangers and threats
Example: lead poisoning among upper
class resulted from lead-based food
containers
Example: unregulated deforestation and
soil erosion may have contributed to the
civilization’s downfall
 Ancient Greeks – some awareness
Example: Greeks deforested much of
Greece but also solar power when
wood became scarce
 Ancient China, India, Peru – awareness of many
environmental issues
Example: used soil conservation methods to
protect against erosion
US Tribal Era
 From about 10,000 years ago to era
of European exploration
 hunter/gatherers, some farming
 Small environmental impact due to
small population size and lifestyle
1200-mid1700s
 Middle Ages to Renaissance – beginning of
awareness of public health issues but
sanitation and regulation of use of resources very
limited
Example: plague devastated Europe but led to beginning
of public health systems Deforestation of much of Europe
occurred during this time – led to use of coal
Frontier Era in the U.S.

 1607-1890Expansion of European influence across North America
Clearing land, increasing use of resources, land granted by government
Beginning of Industrial-Medical Revolution

 Age of Enlightenment (approx. 1650-1800)–
science progresses; thus, society’s awareness
of environmental issues increased but new
technologies led to pollution and other
problems
Example: Ben Franklin fought against water
pollution in Philadelphia
Example: Industry pollutes air and water
through use of coal, other fossil fuels (London
was notorious for dirty air).
Mid1700s - Mid1800s
 Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) – British scholar,
published essays on economics, human population
growth
 Believed that human populations would eventually be
kept in check by famine, disease because populations
grow exponentially, but food supply does not
 In contrast to popular view that human populations
were moving toward perfection and a Utopian society
 Dr. John Snow (1854) – first to

recognize a pattern in an epidemic
and link it to the environment –
contaminated water from one
pump led to spread of cholera.
 Germ theory developed in 1861.
Early Conservation Era in U.S. 1832-1960

 Yellowstone established as the first US National Park
(1872) Concern about the environment in the US was
voiced in the mid 1800s by people such as Henry
David Thoreau.
“Alas! how little does the memory
of these human inhabitants enhance
the beauty of the landscape!”
Henry David Thoreau
1880-1920
 Progressive Era – reform in U.S. was happening in
many fields, thus improving conditions for
humans (slums, prisons, etc.) and the
environment.
 Upton Sinclair wrote “The Jungle”
 Teddy Roosevelt – conservationist, as president
had a huge impact in setting aside natural areas.
1800-1920
 However, much of the preservation system was based upon utilitarian
conservation-the preserving of resources so they can provide homes and jobs for
people.
 John Muir was a geologist, author and
founder of the Sierra Club. Muir argued
that nature deserved to exist for its own
sake, regardless of its usefulness to us.
 His view was called altruistic preservation-emphasizing the fundamental right of
other organisms to exist and to pursue their own interests.
20th Century: A Century of Growth

 The inventions of the twentieth
century had a remarkable effect on
daily life. They also had a
devastating effect on the
environment. Human population
grew tremendously.
 Growing awareness of the effects of man-made threats

to health and the environment, yet society continues
to develop, use products and methods that are
dangerous.
Examples:
 Use of poisonous lead in gasoline
 Use of carcinogenic radium to make glow-in-the-dark clock
faces - Women painting clocks with radium would sometimes
put the brush in their mouth to fix the brush into a point. Dr. Alice Hamilton – fought against
Many women developed cancer the use of leaded gasoline; fought for
the “Radium Girls” who filed a lawsuit
1940-1960
 Increasing scientific knowledge produces
some things with negative
environmental impact: nuclear
weapons, DDT and other pesticides,
synthetic materials such as plastics that
are not biodegradable
Information-Globalization Revolution
 Starting in 1950 but especially from 1970
 Development of technology to gain access to
more information on a global scale
 Computers, internet, phones, remote-sensing
satellites
 Effects are personal, cultural, environmental –
what does this mean?
• Awakening of U.S. public to many

environmental issues
• Publication of Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel
Carson helps propel the modern
environmental movement, raised awareness
of dangers of pesticides and other chemicals
• Garrett Hardin (ecologist) – wrote essay
“Tragedy of the Commons” in 1969
What is Environment?
Simple Definition:
“A persons environment consist of sum total of the stimulation which he receives from
his conception until his death.”
Douglas And Holland :
“ The term environment is used to describe in the aggregate, all the external forces,
influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behavior, and the growth,
development and maturity of the living organisms.”
Scope of the Environment
Environment consist of four segments under:

 Atmosphere- A thin layer compose of 78 % of nitrogen 21 % of oxygen and 1 % of other gases like
carbon dioxide. It implies the protective blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
Function:
 It sustain life on earth.
 It saves it from the hostile environment of the outer space.
 It Absorbs most of cosmic rays from the outer space and a major portion of the electromagnetic
radiation from the sun.
 It transmit only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and radio waves. (0.14
to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-damaging ultraviolet waves below about 300 nm.
 Hydrosphere- It comprises all types of water resources like oceans, seas, lakes, rivers,
streams, reservoir, polar ice caps, glaciers, and ground water.
 Natures 97 % of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans.
 About 2 % of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.
 Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground
water fit to be used for human consumption and other uses.
 Lithosphere- Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of

minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g minerals, organic matter,
air and water.
 Biosphere-Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions
with environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and Lithosphere.
Element of the Environment
Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological, and cultural

elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively.
 Physical Elements are space, landforms, water bodies, climate soils, rocks and
minerals. They determines the variable character of the human habitat, its
opportunities as well as the limitation.
 Biological Elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and men constitute the
biosphere.
 Cultural Elements such as economic, social, and political elements are essentially
manmade features, which make cultural milien.
ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: IMPORTANCE
 Environment issues being of International Importance.

 Problems Cropped in the wake development.
 Explosively Increase in the pollution .
 Need for an Alternative Solutions.
 Need to save humanity from extinction.
 Need for Wise Planning of Development.
 Misra’s Report.
NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
 Growing Population  Degradation of Land

 Poverty  Reorientation of Institutions
 Agricultural Growth  Reduction of Genetic Diversity
 Need to Ground Water  Evil Consequences of Urbanization
 Development and Forests  Air and Water Pollution
VARIOUS TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
 Physical Environment- It refers to geographical climate and weather or physical

conditions wherein and individual lives.
 Social Environment- Includes an individuals social, economic, and political conditions
wherein he lives the moral, cultural, and emotional forces influence the life and
nature of individual behavior.
 Psychological Environment- It enables us to understand the personality of an
individual.
STRUCTURE OF ENVIRONMENT
Physical Environment- It is classified as Solid, Liquid, Gas.

These Represent as:
 Lithosphere (Solid Earth)
 Hydrosphere (Water Component)
 Atmosphere (Air)
Types of Environment:
 Lithospheric Environment
 Hydrospheric Environment
 Atmospheric Environment
Classification of Environment:
 Mountain Environment
 Glacier Environment
 Plateau Environment
 Coastal Environment
Biological Environment- It consist of Plants (Flora) and Animals (Fauna).

Three aspects of Man:
 Physical Man- One of the organisms populations or biological community. It needs of
basic elements of the physical environment like habitat, air , water and food.
 Social Man- The one performs function on establishing social institutions, forming
social organization, formulating laws, principles and policies and lastly taking steps
to safeguard his existence, interest and social welfare.
 Economic Man- Derives and utilizes resources from the physical

and biotic environment with his skills and technologies.
FACTORS THAT INFLUEWENCE THE DISTRIBUTION OF
PLANTS AND ANIMALS
 Temperature- The ability to withstand extremes in temperature widely vary among

plants and animals.
-Animals respond to variation in temperature both physiologically and behaviorally. (Ex.
Birds and mammals are Endotherms (Hot-Blooded) & Reptiles, Amphibians, fish and
insects are Ectotherms (Cold-Blooded).
-Plants are obviously move to escape high and low temperatures. Photosynthesis slows
down or stops when temperatures get too high or low. At high temperature plants
undergo evapotranspiration that results to loss of water through small holes in leaves.
FACTORS THAT INFLUEWENCE THE DISTRIBUTION
OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
 Water- Precipitation of along with mean temperature determines the distribution of

biomes. Water are the primary problem of plants in some areas like dessert.
Plants Adaptation Includes:
Xerophytes- Plants that usually store and conserve water.
Phreatophytes- Plants that grow extremely long roots, allowing them to
acquire moisture from the ground.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DISTRIBUTION OF
PLANTS AND ANIMALS
 Light- It influences daily and seasonal activity patterns of plants and animals. Light is
necessary for photosynthesis in which it turns the source of energy in almost at
ecosystem.
Gross Primary Production- Equals sun’s energy that is assimilated (Total Photosynthesis).
Respiration- Equals energy needed for maintenance and reproduction.
Net Primary Production- Energy remaining after respiration stored as organic matter, and
energy that available to other organisms in a food chain(or Food Web).
INTERACTION AMONG ORGANISMS IN
ECOSYSTEM.
Interaction Effect on Species 1 Effect on Species 2
Competition between Species 1 and Harmful Harmful
Species 2
Predation of Species 2 by Species 1 Beneficial Harmful
Symbiosis
Mutualism of Species 1 and Species 2 Beneficial Beneficial
Commensalism of Species 1 with Beneficial No effect

Species 2
Parasitism by Species on Species 2 Beneficial Harmful
SEVEN ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES
 Environmental Principle No. 1- Nature Knows Best

 Environmental Principle No. 2- All Forms of Life are Important
 Environmental Principle No. 3- Everything is Related to Everything Else
 Environmental Principle No. 4- Change
 Environmental Principle No. 5- Everything Must go Somewhere
 Environmental Principle No. 6- Finiteness of Resources
 Environmental Principle No. 7- Nature is Beautiful and We are Stewards of
God’s Creation.
LESSON 2
MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE IN ECOSYSTEM

What is Ecosystem?
 An integrated unit consisting of a community of organisms in the form of bacteria,

plants and animals and the physical environment in form of water, air, soil, and
climate that they inhabit.
Components of Ecosystem
 Biotic – It refers to all living things including the plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and
etc.
 Abiotic- It refers to all non-living things or Physical components such as water, air,
soil , climate and etc.
Biotic Factors:
 Producers or Autotrophs-
Producers, such as plants, that posses the ability to make their own food through a
process called Photosynthesis.
 Consumers or Heterotrophs-
Consumers, such as animals who doesn’t posses ability to make their own food and
dependent to the producers for their survival.
Biotic Factors:
Types of Consumers:
Herbivores- Intake Plants
Carnivores-Intake Animals
Omnivores-Intake Both Plants and Animals.
Biotic Factors:
 Decomposer-
Are Heterotrophs such as bacteria and fungi that breakdown dead tissue and waste
products. It plays an important role in the ecosystem because it recycled the nutrients.
Abiotic Factors
 Solar Radiation
-Sun’s energy, a product of a massive nuclear fusion reaction is emitted into space in a
form of electromagnetic radiation, especially the ultraviolet light, visible, and infrared
radiation.
-Billionth of the total energy of the sun release at the atmosphere and small amount
operates the biosphere.
Abiotic Factors
 About 30% of solar radiation falls on earth and the remaining 70% is absorb by the
earth surface and atmosphere, which runs the water cycle, drives the wind and ocean
currents, power of photosynthesis and warms the planet.
Abiotic Factors
 Atmosphere
-An invisible layer of gases that envelops the earth, it compose of oxygen (21%) and
nitrogen (78%) or 99% of dry air. Remaining 1 % of it compose of other gases such as
argon, carbon dioxide, neon, and helium.
-In addition, water vapor, and various air pollutants, such as methane, ozone, dust
particles, pollen, micro organisms and chlorofluorocarbons are present.
Abiotic Factors
-Atmosphere protects the earth from ultraviolet rays and X-rays as well as in lethal
amounts of cosmic rays in the space.
-Interaction between atmosphere and solar energy is responsible for weather and
climate.
Abiotic Factors
 Ocean
 Ocean covers almost ¾ of the earth surface.
 Gyres or prevailing's winds blow over the ocean to generates circular ocean
currents.
 Earth rotations from west to east causes surface ocean currents to swerve to the
right in the northern hemisphere, producing a clockwise gyre of water currents.
Abiotic Factors
 Climate
- It refers to the average conditions, and the extremes that occurs in an given place over
a period of years. It profoundly affects organisms such as animals and plants.
 Two important factors that will determine an area’s of climate, the temperature and
precipitation.
 Other climate factors are wind, humidity , fog , cloud cover and fire.
Abiotic Factors
 Fire
-Fire have several effects on organism, for combustion that frees the nutrient minerals
that were locked in dry organic matters.
-Fires removes plant covers and express the soil, it stimulates the germination and
establishment of seeds requiring bare soils as well as encourages the growth shade-
tolerant plants.
-Fires are widely use for every activities in everyday lives for balancing temperature, for
cooking and etc.
-
NUTRITION
Nutrients
Some used as raw Some used as fuel
materials
OTHER ACTIVITIES SYNTHESIS CELLULAR

• Homeostasis Manufacture RESPIRATION
• Movement of materials needed materials Biological process
in and out of cells. and structures breaking down
• Growth and molecules.
Development
• Reproduction
ENERGY
Figure 8. Relationship among Metabolic Processes

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Energy in an ecosystem originally comes from the sun.

Energy flows through Ecosystems from producers to
consumers.
o Producers (make food)
o Consumers (use food by eating producers or other
consumers)
PRODUCERS
 Also called as Autotrophs.

 These are plants, Algae , protist and certain Bacteria
that produce their own food from simple materials.
 Producers contain chlorophyll & can use energy
directly from the sun.
 It undergo a process called photosynthesis wherein
Carbon Dioxide, water with the presence of Sunlight
formed its by product Sugar (Food) and Oxygen.
NICHE OF PRODUCERS
 Captures energy and transforms it into organic, stored energy for the use of living
organisms.
 May be photoautotrophs using light energy (e.g. plants)
 May be chemoautotrophs using chemical energy (e.g. cyanobacteria)
PHOTOAUTOTROPHS
Producer That Captures Energy from the sun by:

 Photosynthesis
 Adds Oxygen to the atmosphere
 Removes Carbon Dioxide from the
Atmosphere
HABITAT OF PHOTOAUTOTROPHS
 On Land
 Plants
 In The Sea
 Algae
 Tidal Flats & Salt Marshes
 Cyanobacteria
CHEMOAUTOTROPHS
 Capture energy from the bonds of inorganic

molecules such as Hydrogen Sulfide
 Process is called Chemosynthesis
 Often occurs in deep sea vents or gut of animals
Called a Black smoker (thermal vent)

CONSUMERS
 Also called as Heterotrophs.

 Organisms that cannot manufactured their food.
 Consumers is dependent to the producers to acquire food, energy and oxygen they
needed.
 These organism help cycles balance by providing carbon dioxide that would be
needed by plants to make photosynthesis possible.
CONSUMERS
Three Types of Consumers:

Herbivores- Animals that consumed plants for food.
Carnivores- Animals that consumed flesh of meats.
Omnivores-Consumed both meats and Plants.
DECOMPOSERS
Decomposers are heterotrophs such as Bacteria and Fungi that breakdown dead
tissues and waste products. They play a vital role in the ecosystem because they
recycled nutrients going back to the system. .
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
 All organisms require energy, for growth, maintenance, reproduction, locomotion,

and etc.
 Hence, for all organisms there must be:
 A source of energy
 A loss of usable energy
TYPES OF ENERGY
 Heat energy -result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms, molecules or ions in solids, liquids
and gases.
 Mechanical energy (+gravitational energy, etc.)
 Chemical energy = Energy stored in molecular bonds
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
First Law:
Energy can not be created or destroyed, only transformed from one step to another.
Second Law:
In the path of energy transformation some energy loss in the form of heat and the
entropy increases.
1st LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
“Energy can not be created or destroyed, only transformed from one step to another. “
 Energy From Sun to Plant  Chlorophyll of green plants traps the light energy from sun
and produce food with the help of water, CO2 and minerals.
 Energy users
o Producers–Green plants use light energy (sunlight) to produce food (chemical energy).
o Primary consumers– Feed on herbivores and get energy from plants (Carnivores).
o Secondary consumers– Feed on primary consumers and get energy form them.
o Tertiary consumers- Feed on secondary consumers and get energy.
o Decomposers- Break down dead or decaying organism (decomposition) and get energy.
First Second Third Fourth Decomposers
Tropic Level: Tropic Level: Tropic Level: Tropic Level:
Producers Primary Secondary Tertiary
Consumers Consumers Consumers
Rice Rats Snake Eagle Mushrooms & Bacteria
HEAT HEAT HEAT HEAT HEAT
Figure 1.Energy Flow Through Ecosystem

1st LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
“Energy can not be created or destroyed, only transformed from one step to another. “
 Food chain or food web support the 1st law of thermodynamics.

 Energy Recycling Plants or Producers 1st tropic level Energy Sun The energy house
Energy Consumers 2nd tropic level Decomposers 3rd tropic level E n e r g y Energy
Soil, Air, Water with matter Heat.
2nd LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
“In the path of energy transformation some energy loss in the form of heat and the entropy increases.”
 In the path of energy transformation some energy loss in the form of heat and the
entropy increases.
 The Pathway of Energy Loss, not all food consumed by heterotrophs (consumers) is
transformed into biomass. At each tropic level about 90% of energy is loss to perform
metabolic activities. Entropy increases.
 What is Entropy?
According to Great Physicist Peter Higgs:
“Entropy is the every types of error or unrestrained activities of a system.”
 Different Forms of entropy happen among organisms.
2nd LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
“In the path of energy transformation some energy loss in the form of heat and the entropy increases.”
 What happens to the energy in the end?

o Solar energy is used by plants for food production.
o The energy transformed from green plants to decomposers in different steps.
o In the energy transformation path, energy is lost into space in the form of heat.
o Energy is used in endothermic reaction(an animal that is dependent on the internal
generation of heat).
Food Chain
Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction from producers to
various levels of consumers

2nd Order 3rd Order
Consumer consumer 4th Order
Consumer
1st order
Consumer
Producer
(trapped sunlight
& stored food)
Food Chain refers to a diagram that’s shows the energy flow from
food passes from one organism to the next in a sequence.
Food Web
Food Web is a complex

Diagram consist of food
chains and illustrate the
complexity of energy flow
in the ecosystem .
Trophic Levels
Each Level In A Food Chain or Food Web is a Trophic Level.
• Producers
• Always The First Trophic Level
• How Energy Enters The System
• Herbivores
• Second Trophic Level
• Carnivores/Omnivores
• Make Up The Remaining Trophic Levels
Each level depends on the one below it for energy.
Ecological Pyramids
Graphic Representations Of The

Relative Amounts of Energy or
Matter At Each Trophic Level
May be:
Energy Pyramid
Biomass Pyramid
Pyramid of Numbers
PYRAMID OF ENERGY
• Indicates the energy content, often expressed

as kilocalories per square meter per year of
the biomass of each trophic level. Energy
pyramids are always have its larges bases
and get progressively smaller through
succeeding trophic levels. Less energy
reaches each successive trophic levels from
the level beneath it because those organisms
at the lower level use some of the energy to
perform work while some are lost.
PYRAMID OF MASS
• Shows the total biomass at each

successive trophic level . Biomass is the
quantitative estimate of the total mass ,
or amount of living material. It indicates
the amounts of fixed energy in the
particular time. It may be presented as
total volume, dry weight, or live weight.
This pyramid illustrate a progressive
reduction of biomass in succeeding
trophic levels.
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
• Shows the number of organisms

at each trophic level in a given
ecosystem, with a larger area
illustrating greater numbers for
that section of the pyramids .In
most pyramids of numbers,
fewer organisms occupy each
successive trophic level.
86
PRODUCTIVITY VARIATION IN ECOSYSTEM
The Gross Primary Production (GPP) of an ecosystem is the rate at which

energy is captured during photosynthesis.
Net Primary Productivity = Gross Primary Productivity – Plant Respiration

(Plant growth per (Total Photosynthesis per (Per Unit area per
unit area per unit time) unit area per unit time) Unit of Time)
87
LESSON 3
BIOGECHEMICAL CYCLE
TYPES OF CYCLE
 Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle

 Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle
 Phosphorus Cycle
 Sulfur Cycle
WATER CYCLE
Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle
 Water cycle, also called as Hydrologic cycle, this cycle involves continuous circulation of water in the
Earth-atmosphere system.
 Many processes involved in the water cycle, the most important are:
o Evaporation
o Transpiration
o Condensation
o Precipitation
o Run-off
 Total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution among the various
processes is continually changing.
 Evaporation
 The process by which an element or compound transitions from its liquid state to
its gaseous state below the temperature at which it boils
 The process by which liquid water enters the atmosphere as water vapor.
 Trough evaporation, water in the liquid state is transferred to the gaseous, or vapor
state.
 This transfer occurs when some molecules in a water mass have attained
sufficient kinetic energy to eject themselves from the water surface.
 The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature, humidity, wind speed,
and solar radiation.
 The principal source of water vapor is the oceans, but evaporation also occurs in
soils, snow, and ice.
 Evaporation from snow and ice, the direct conversion from solid to vapor, is known as
sublimation.
• Transpiration
 Is the evaporation of water through minute pores, or stomata, in the leaves of plants.
 For practical uses transpiration and the evaporation from all water, soils, snow, ice,
vegetation, and other surface are lumped together and called evapotranspiration, or
total evaporation.
• Condensation
 Transition process from the vapor state to the liquid state is called condensation.
 Condensation may take place as soon as the air contains more water vapor than it can
receive from a free water surface through evaporation at the prevailing temperature.
 This condition occurs as the consequence of either cooling or the mixing of air masses
of different temperatures.
 Through condensation, water vapor in the atmosphere is released to
form precipitation.
 Precipitation
 It happens when all liquid and solid water particles fall from clouds and reach the ground. These
particles include drizzle, rain, snow, snow pellets, ice crystals, and hail.
 When precipitation falls to the Earth it is distributed in four main ways:
o Some is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation.
o Some may be intercepted by vegetation and then evaporated from the surface of leaves.
o Some percolates into the soil by infiltration, and the remainder flows directly as surface runoff into the
sea.
o Some of the infiltrated precipitation may later percolate into streams as groundwater runoff. Direct
measurement of runoff is made by stream gauges and plotted against time on hydrographs.
 Most groundwater is derived from precipitation that has percolated through the soil. Groundwater
flow rates, compared with those of surface water, are very slow and variable, ranging from a few
millimeters to a few meters a day.
 Run-off
 In hydrology, quantity of water discharged in surface streams.
 Runoff includes not only the waters that travel over the land surface and through channels to reach a
stream but also interflow, the water that infiltrates the soil surface and travels by means of gravity
toward a stream channel (always above the main groundwater level) and eventually empties into the
channel.
 Runoff also includes groundwater that is discharged into a stream; streamflow that is composed
entirely of groundwater is termed base flow, or fair-weather runoff, and it occurs where a stream
channel intersects the water table.
CARBON CYCLE
 During Photosynthesis, Plants , Algae, and cyanobacteria remove Carbon Dioxide

from the air and fix, or incorporate it into complex organic compound such us glucose.
Plants use most of the glucose to make cellulose, starch, amino acids, and other
compounds.
 Many compounds are used as fuel for cellular respiration by the producer that made
them, by a consumer that eats producer, or by a decomposer that breaks down the
remains of the producers or consumers. Cellular respiration returns carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere similar to carbon cycle that occurs into aquatic ecosystem
between aquatic organisms and dissolved carbon dioxide in water.
CARBON CYCLE
 Million of years ago vast coal beds formed from the bodies of ancient trees that were
buried and subjected to anaerobic conditions before they had fully decayed .
 The oils of unicellular marine organism probably gave arise to the underground
deposits of oil and natural gas (Fossil Fuels) that accumulated in the geologic past.
 Combustion return carbon in oil, coal, natural gas and wood to atmosphere. In
combustion or the burning process , organic molecules are rapidly oxidized (Bond to
Oxygen) and converted carbon dioxide and water with an accompanying release of
light and heat.
CARBON CYCLE
 Greater amount of carbon that is stored for millions of years is incorporated into the
shells of marine organisms. The deposits are eventually cemented together with
limestone's .
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
• The carbon cycle is the cycle by which carbon moves through our Earth’s various
systems. The carbon cycle is influenced by living things, atmospheric changes, ocean
chemistry, and geologic activity .
• Carbon is an essential element for life as we know, it because of its ability to form
multiple, stable bonds with other molecules.
• Carbon provides a stable structure that allows the chemistry of life happen. Therefore
nucleotides, amino acids, sugars, and lipids all depend on carbon backbones, Without
carbon, none of these molecules could exist and function in the ways that permit the
chemistry of life to occur.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
• As a gas, carbon largely takes the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is released
by organisms as they break down by glucose.
• Autotrophic organisms like plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to create glucose.
However, carbon dioxide is also released by decaying organic matter, geological
processes, and the burning of fossil fuels.
• Excess carbon dioxide is largely absorbed by the ocean, which leads to ocean
acidification and may have been responsible for several mass extinctions.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
Carbon Cycle Steps:

• Carbon in the Atmosphere
 To become part of the carbon cycle, carbon atoms start out in a gaseous form. Carbon
dioxide gas – CO2 – can be produced by inorganic processes, or by the metabolisms of
living things.
 Carbon is also released into the atmosphere through the activities of living things, such
as the exhalations of animals, the actions of decomposer organisms, and the burning
of wood and fossil fuels by humans.
• Producers Absorb Carbon
 “Producers” – organisms that produce food from sunlight, such as plants – absorb
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it to build sugars, lipids, proteins, and
other essential building blocks of life.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
 For plants, CO2 is absorbed through pores in their leaves called “stomata.” Carbon dioxide enters
the plant through the stomata and is incorporated into containing carbon compounds with the help of
energy from sunlight.
 Plants and other producer organisms such as cyanobacteria are crucial to life on Earth because they
can turn atmospheric carbon into living matter.
• Producers are Eaten

 “Consumers” are organisms that eat other living things. Animals are the most visible type
of consumer in our ecosystems.
 Consumers incorporate carbon compounds from plants and other food sources when they eat them.
They use some of these carbon compounds from food to build their own bodies – but much of the food
they eat is broken down to release energy, in a process that is almost the reverse of what producers do.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
 While producers use energy from sunlight to make bonds between carbon atoms – animals break these
bonds to release the energy they contain, ultimately turning sugars, lipids, and other carbon
compounds into single-carbon units. These are ultimately released into the atmosphere in the form of
CO2.
• Decomposers Release Carbon

 Plants and animals that die without being eaten by other animals are broken down by other organisms,
called “decomposers.”
 Decomposers include many bacteria and some fungi. They usually only break down matter that is
already dead, rather than catching and eating a living animal or plant.
 Just like animals, decomposers break down the chemical bonds in their food molecules. They create
many chemical products, including in some cases CO2.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
• Human Activities
 By burning huge amounts of fossil fuels and cutting down roughly half of the Earth’s
forests, humans have decreased the Earth’s ability f to take carbon out of the
atmosphere, while releasing large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere that had
been stored in solid form as plant matter and fossil fuels.
 This means more carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere – which is particularly
dangerous since carbon dioxide is a “greenhouse gas” that plays a role in regulating
the Earth’s temperature and weather patterns.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
Carbon in Atmosphere
 One major repository of carbon is the carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Carbon forms a stable, gaseous molecule in combination with two atoms of oxygen.
 In nature, this gas is released by volcanic activity, and by the respiration of animals
who affix carbon molecules from the food they eat to molecules of oxygen before
exhaling it.
 Carbon dioxide can be removed from the atmosphere by plants, which take the
atmospheric carbon and turn it into sugars, proteins, lipids, and other essential
molecules for life.
 It can also be removed from the atmosphere by absorption into the ocean, whose
water molecules can bond with carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
Carbon in Lithosphere
 The Earth’s crust can also release carbon dioxide into Earth’s atmosphere. This gas can be
created by chemical reactions in the Earth’s crust and mantel.
 Volcanic activity can result in natural releases of carbon dioxide. Some scientists believe that
widespread volcanic activity may be to blame for the warming of the Earth that caused
Permian extinction.
 Earth’s crust can add carbon to the atmosphere, it can also remove it.
 Movements of the Earth’s crust can bury carbon-containing chemicals such as dead plants and
animals deep underground, where their carbon cannot escape back into the atmosphere.
 Over millions of years, these underground reservoirs of organic matter liquefy and become
coal, oil, and gasoline.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
Carbon in Biosphere
 Among living things, some remove carbon from the atmosphere, while others release
it back. The most noticeable participants in this system are plants and animals.
 Plants remove carbon from the atmosphere. atmospheric carbon is the “food” which
plants use to make sugars, proteins, lipids, and other essential molecules for life.
 Plants use the energy of sunlight, harvested through photosynthesis, to build these

organic compounds out of carbon dioxide and other trace elements.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
Carbon in Biosphere
 In a gracefully balanced set of chemical reactions, animals eat plants (and other
animals), and take these synthesized molecules apart again. Animals get their fuel
from the chemical energy plants have stored in the bonds between carbon atoms and
other atoms during photosynthesis.
 Animal cells dissemble complex molecules such as sugars, fats, and proteins all the
way down to single-carbon units – molecules of carbon dioxide, which are produced
by reacting carbon-containing food molecules with oxygen from the air.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
Carbon in Oceans
 The Earth’s oceans can both absorb and release carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere meets ocean water, it can react with the water molecules to
form carbonic acid – a dissolved liquid form of carbon.
 When there is more carbonic acid in the ocean compared to carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, some carbonic acid may be released into the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide.
 On the other hand, when there is more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, more
carbon dioxide will be converted to carbonic acid, and ocean acidity levels will rise.
 These changes in ocean acidity may sound small by human standards, many types of
sea life depend on chemical reactions that need a highly specific acidity level to
survive. In fact, ocean acidification is currently killing many coral reef communities.
CARBON-OXYGEN CYCLE
Why is the Carbon Cycle Important?
 The carbon cycle, under normal circumstances, works to ensure the stability of variables such
as the Earth’s atmosphere, the acidity of the ocean, and the availability of carbon for use by
living things.
 Each of its components is of crucial importance to the health of all living things – especially
humans, who rely on many food crops and animals to feed our large population.
 Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prevents the sun’s heat from escaping into space, very
much like the glass walls of a greenhouse.
NITROGEN
CYCLE
NITROGEN CYCLE
 Nitrogen is important for all organism s because it is essential part of proteins,

nucleic acid, and chlorophyll.
 Since Atmosphere is compose of 78% nitrogen , it has no possibility of shortage
in nitrogen for organisms but molecular nitrogen is so stable that it does not
readily combine with other elements.
 Nitrogen molecule must be broken apart before the nitrogen atoms combine
with other elements to form nucleic acids, proteins and chlorophyll.
 Nitrogen Cycle consist of five (5) steps: 1. Nitrogen Fixation 2. Nitrification 3.
Assimilation 4. Ammonification and 5. Denitrification. Bacteria are always
involve in all steps except in assimilation.
NITROGEN CYCLE
 Nitrogen fixation, in which nitrogen gas is converted into inorganic

nitrogen compounds, is mostly (90 percent) accomplished by
certain bacteria and blue-green algae. A much smaller amount of free nitrogen is
fixed by abiotic means (e.g., lightning, ultraviolet radiation, electrical equipment)
and by conversion to ammonia through the Haber-Bosch process.
 Nitrates and ammonia resulting from nitrogen fixation are assimilated into the
specific tissue compounds of algae and higher plants. Animals then ingest these
algae and plants, converting them into their own body compounds.
NITROGEN CYCLE
 The remains of all living things—and their waste products—are decomposed by

microorganisms in the process of ammonification, which yields ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium (NH4+). (Under anaerobic, or oxygen-free, conditions, foul-smelling
putrefactive products may appear, but they too are converted to ammonia in time.)
Ammonia can leave the soil or be converted into other nitrogen compounds, depending
in part on soil conditions.
 Nitrification, a process carried out by nitrifying bacteria, transforms soil ammonia
into nitrates (NO3−), which plants can incorporate into their own tissues.
 Nitrates also are metabolized by denitrifying bacteria, which are especially active in
water-logged anaerobic soils. The action of these bacteria tends to deplete soil nitrates,
forming free atmospheric nitrogen.
NITROGEN CYCLE
 Nitrogen Fixation- Conversion of gaseous nitrogen to ammonia.

 Nitrification- Conversion of Ammonia or Ammonium into nitrate.
 Assimilation- Absorption of ammonia, ammonium or nitrate in plants.
 Ammonification- Conversion of organic Nitrogen compounds into Ammonia.
 Denitrification- Reduction of Nitrate in gaseous Nitrogen.
PHOSPORUS CYCLE
Phosphorus Cycle
 Phosphorus Cycle does not exist in a gaseous state thus, it cannot entered the
atmosphere, cycles are only in land sediments in the oceans and back to the land.
 Phosphates are formed in the lithosphere and as the water runs over rock containing
phosphorus releases phosphorus, it gradually erodes the surface and carries off
inorganic phosphate.
 Erosion of phosphorus rock releases phosphate into soil where it is taken up by roots
in the form of inorganic phosphates.
Ex: Phosphates in Food and Drinking water that we consumed.
Phosphorus Cycle
 Phosphorus cycle occurs in aquatic ecosystem. Dissolved phosphates enters aquatic

ecosystem through absorption by algae and aquatic plants which zooplankton and
larger organisms consume. Decomposers break down wastes and dead organisms to
release inorganic phosphate into water, making it available for use again by aquatic
producers.
 Phosphates can be lost for varying period of time from biological cycles. Streams and
rivers carry some phosphates to the ocean where it is deposited on the seafloor and
remains in million years.
Phosphorus Cycle
 Geologic process of uplift may someday exposed this sea floor sediments as a new
land surface from which phosphates will once again eroded.
 Phosphate deposits including guano are also mined in agricultural used in phosphate
fertilizers.
SULFUR CYCLE
 The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves between rocks,

waterways and living systems. Such biogeochemical cycles are important in geology
because they affect many minerals.
 Biochemical cycles are also important for life because sulfur is an essential element,
being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors, and sulfur compounds can be
used as oxidants or reductants in microbial respiration.
 The global sulfur cycle involves the transformations of sulfur species through different
oxidation states, which play an important role in both geological and biological
processes.
SULFUR CYCLE
Steps of the sulfur cycle are:

•Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.
•Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate (SO42−).
•Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
•Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing

derivatives).
SULFUR CYCLE
These are often termed as follows:

 Assimilative sulfate reduction in which sulfate (SO42−) is reduced by plants , fungi and
various prokaryotes. The oxidation states of sulfur are +6 in sulfate and –2 in R–SH.
 Desulfurization in which organic molecules containing sulfur can be desulfurized,

producing hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S, oxidation state = –2). An analogous process for
organic nitrogen compounds is deamination.
 Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide produces elemental sulfur (S8), oxidation state = 0. This

reaction occurs in the photosynthetic green and purple sulfur bacteria and
some chemolithotrophs. Often the elemental sulfur is stored as polysulfides.
2. a set of forward and reverse pathways that progress from the uptake and release of sulfate by the cell to its conversion to various sulfur intermediates, and ultimately to sulfide which is released from the cell.
SULFUR CYCLE
 Oxidation in elemental sulfur by sulfur oxidizers produces sulfate.

Dissimilative sulfur reduction in which elemental sulfur can be reduced to hydrogen
sulfide.
 Dissimilative sulfate reduction in which sulfate reducers generate hydrogen sulfide

from sulfate.
SULFUR CYCLE
Sulfur oxidation State

Sulfur has four main oxidation states in nature, which are -2, +2, +4, and +6. The
common sulfur species of each oxidation state are listed as follows:
S2-: H2S, FeS, FeS2, CuS
S0: native, or elemental, sulfur
S2+: SO
S4+: SO2, sulfite (SO32-)
S6+: SO42- (H2SO4, CaSO4), SF6
SULFUR CYCLE
 Sulfur is found in oxidation states ranging from +6 in SO42− to -2 in sulfides. Thus,

elemental sulfur can either give or receive electrons depending on its environment.
 On the anoxic early Earth, most sulfur was present in minerals such as pyrite (FeS2).
Over Earth history, the amount of mobile sulfur increased through volcanic activity as
well as weathering of the crust in an oxygenated atmosphere.
 Earth's main sulfur sink is the oceans SO42−, where it is the major oxidizing agent.
 When SO42− is assimilated by organisms, it is reduced and converted to organic sulfur,
which is an essential component of proteins.
 Biosphere does not act as a major sink for sulfur, instead the majority of sulfur is
found in seawater or sedimentary rocks including: pyrite rich shales, evaporite rocks
(anhydrite and baryte), and calcium and magnesium carbonates.
SULFUR CYCLE
The amount of sulfate in the oceans is controlled by three (3) major processes:
1. Input from rivers

2. Sulfate reduction and sulfide re-oxidation on continental shelves and slopes
3. Burial of anhydrite and pyrite in the oceanic crust.
“The primary natural source of sulfur to the atmosphere is sea spray or windblown sulfur rich dust, neither
of which is long lived in the atmosphere. In recent times, the large annual input of sulfur from the burning
of coal and other fossil fuels has added a substantial amount SO2 which acts as an air pollutant. In the
geologic past, igneous intrusions into coal measures have caused large scale burning of these measures,
and consequential release of sulfur to the atmosphere. “
SULFUR CYCLE
 It led to substantial disruption to the climate system, and is one of the proposed causes
of the Permian–Triassic extinction event.
 Dimethylsulfide [(CH3)2S or DMS] is produced by the decomposition
of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) from dying phytoplankton cells in the
ocean's photic zone, and is the major biogenic gas emitted from the sea, where it is
responsible for the distinctive “smell of the sea” along coastlines.
 DMS is the largest natural source of sulfur gas, but still only has a residence time of
about one day in the atmosphere and a majority of it is redeposit in the oceans rather
than making it to land.
 It is a significant factor in the climate system, as it is involved in the formation of clouds.
HUMAN IMPACT IN BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
LESSON 4
BIOMES: KINDS OF ECOSYSTEM

What is Biomes?
 A large, relatively distinct terrestrial region that has similar climate, soil, plants
and animals regardless where it occurs. It covers a large geographic area and
encompasses interacting landscapes.
Types of Biomes
 Tundra  Desert
 Taiga  Savanna
 Temperate Rainforest  Tropical Rainforest
 Chaparral
Tundra
In physicalgeography, tundra is a type of biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short
growing seasons. The term tundra means "uplands", "treeless mountain tract". Tundra vegetation is composed of
dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundra regions. The ecotone (or
ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline.
Tundra
 Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere. The word "tundra" usually refers only to the
areas where the subsoil is permafrost, or permanently frozen soil.
 Arctic tundra contains areas of stark landscape and is frozen for much of the year. The soil there is
frozen from 25 to 90 cm (10 to 35 in) down, making it impossible for trees to grow. Instead, bare and
sometimes rocky land can only support certain kinds of Arctic vegetation, low growing plants such as
moss, heath (Ericaceae varieties such as crowberry and black bearberry), and lichen.
 There are two main seasons, winter and summer, in the polar tundra areas. During the winter it is
very cold and dark, with the average temperature around −28 °C (−18 °F), sometimes dipping as low
as −50 °C (−58 °F).
Tundra
 The tundra is covered in marshes, lakes, bogs and streams during the warm months. Generally
daytime temperatures during the summer rise to about 12 °C (54 °F) but can often drop to 3 °C (37 °F)
or even below freezing. Arctic tundra's are sometimes the subject of habitat conservation programs.
 The biodiversity of tundra is low: 1,700 species of vascular plants and only 48 species of land
mammals can be found, although millions of birds migrate there each year for the marshes. [5] There
are also a few fish species. There are few species with large populations. Notable animals in the Arctic
tundra include reindeer (caribou), musk ox, Arctic hare, Arctic fox, snowy owl, lemmings, and
even polar bears near the ocean. Tundra is largely devoid of poikilotherms such as frogs or lizards.
 Due to the harsh climate of Arctic tundra, regions of this kind have seen little human activity, even
though they are sometimes rich in natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas and uranium. In
recent times this has begun to change in Alaska, Russia, and some other parts of the world: for
example, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug produces 90% of Russia's natural gas.
Taiga
 Taiga is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines spruces, and larches.

The taiga or boreal forest is the world's largest land biome. Taiga is the world's largest land biome. it could
also be considered the second-largest, after deserts and xeric shrublands, covering 17 million square
kilometers (6.6 million square miles) or 11.5% of the Earth's land area. The largest areas are located in
Russia and Canada. The taiga is the terrestrial biome with the lowest annual average temperatures after
the tundra and permanent ice caps.
Taiga
 The growing season, when the vegetation in the taiga comes alive, is usually slightly longer than the climatic
definition of summer as the plants of the boreal biome have a lower threshold to trigger growth.
 The taiga experiences relatively low precipitation throughout the year (generally 200–750 mm (7.9–29.5 in)
annually, 1,000 mm (39 in) in some areas), primarily as rain during the summer months, but also as fog and snow.
This fog, especially predominant in low-lying areas during and after the thawing of frozen Arctic seas, means that
sunshine is not abundant in the taiga even during the long summer days.
 As evaporation is consequently low for most of the year, precipitation exceeds evaporation, and is sufficient to
sustain the dense vegetation growth including large trees. (In the steppe biome, often found south of taiga in the
northern hemisphere, evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, restricting vegetation to mostly grasses.)
 Snow may remain on the ground for as long as nine months in the northernmost extensions of the taiga ecozone.
Temperate Rainforest
 The temperate forest biome is one of the world's major habitats. Temperate forests are characterized as regions
with high levels of precipitation, humidity, and a variety of deciduous trees. Deciduous trees are trees that lose
their leaves in winter. Decreasing temperatures and shortened daylight hours in fall mean
decreased photosynthesis for plants. Thus, these trees shed their leaves in fall and bud new leaves in spring when
warmer temperatures and longer hours of daylight return.
 Temperate forests have a wide range of temperatures that correlate with the distinctive seasons.
Temperatures range from hot in the summer, with highs of 86 F, to extremely cold in the winter, with
lows of -22 F. Temperate forests receive abundant amounts of precipitation, usually between 20 and
60 inches of precipitation annually. This precipitation is in the form of rain and snow.
 Due to abundant rainfall and thick soil humus, temperate forests are able to support a wide variety of
plant life and vegetation. This vegetation exists in several layers, ranging from lichens and mosses on
the ground layer to large tree species like oak and hickory that stretch high above the forest floor.
Other examples of temperate forest vegetation include: Maple trees, walnut trees, birch trees,
Dogwoods, redbuds, shadbush, Azaleas, mountain laurel, huckleberries, Blue bead lily, Indian
cucumber, wild sarsaparilla, Lichens and mosses.
 Temperate forests are home to a diverse wildlife biosystem including various insects and spiders,

wolves, foxes, bears, coyotes, bobcats, mountain lions, eagles, rabbits, deer, skunks, squirrels,
raccoons, squirrels, moose, snakes, and hummingbirds.
 Temperate forest animals have many different ways to deal with the cold and lack of food in winter.
Some animals hibernate during the winter and arise in spring when food is more plentiful. Other
animals store food and burrow underground to escape the cold. Many animals escape the harsh
conditions by migrating to warmer regions in winter. Other animals have adapted to this environment
by blending in with the forest. Some camouflage themselves as leaves, looking almost
indistinguishable from the foliage. This type of adaptation comes in handy for both predators and
prey.
Chaparral
 A biome is a naturally occurring community of plants and wildlife that occupy a particular
habitat. Chaparral biomes are composed of a variety of different types of terrain including plains, rocky
hills, and mountain slopes. The climate of the chaparral biome can be characterized as hot and dry in the
summer, with temperatures steadily reaching 105 degrees Fahrenheit, and mild in the winter, with
temperatures remaining at around 50 degrees Fahrenheit. These conditions make the chaparral very
susceptible to droughts and wildfires as the biome normally receives only 10-15 inches of rain per year.
Chaparral
 Chaparral is characterized as being very hot and dry. As for the temperature, the
winter is very mild and is usually about 10 °C. Then there is the summer. It is so hot
and dry at 40 °C that fires and droughts are very common.
 Plants and animals are adapted to the conditions. Most of the plants have small, hard
leaves which hold moisture. Some of these plants are poison oak, scrub oak, Yucca
Wiple and other shrubs, trees and cacti.
 The animals are all mainly grassland and desert types adapted to hot, dry weather. A
few examples: coyotes, jack rabbits, mule deer, alligator lizards, horned toads,
praying mantis, honey bee and ladybugs.
Desert
 The desert biome is a dry, terrestrial biome. It consists of habitats that receive very little rainfall each year,
generally less than 50 centimeters. The desert biome covers about one-fifth of the Earth's surface and includes
regions at a variety of latitudes and elevations. The desert biome is divided into four basic types of deserts—arid
deserts, semi-arid deserts, coastal deserts, and cold deserts. Each of these types of deserts is characterized by
different physical characteristics such as aridity, climate, location, and temperature.
Desert
The desert biome is divided into the following habitats:

 Arid deserts - Arid deserts are hot, dry deserts that occur at low latitudes around the world. Temperatures remain warm year-
round, although they are hottest during the summer months. There is little rainfall in arid deserts and what rain does fall is often
exceeded by evaporation. Arid deserts occur in North America, Central America, South America, Africa, southern Asia, and
Australia. Some examples of arid deserts include the Sonoran Desert, Mojave Desert, Sahara Desert, and the Kalahari Desert.
 Semi-arid deserts - Semi-arid deserts are generally not as hot and dry as arid deserts. Semi-arid deserts experience long, dry
summers and cool winters with some precipitation. Semi-arid deserts occur in North America, Newfoundland, Greenland,
Europe, and Asia.
 Coastal deserts - Coastal deserts generally occur on the western edges of continents at approximately 23°N and 23°S latitude
(also known as the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn). In these locations, cold ocean currents run parallel to the coast
and produce heavy fogs that drift over the deserts. Although the humidity of coastal deserts may be high, rainfall remains rare.
Examples of coastal deserts include the Atacama Desert of Chile and the Namib Desert of Namibia.
 Cold deserts - Cold deserts are deserts that have low temperatures and long winters. Cold deserts occur in the Arctic, Antarctic,
and above the treelines of mountain ranges. Many areas of the tundra biome can also be considered cold deserts. Cold deserts
often have more precipitation than other types of deserts. An example of a cold desert is the Gobi Desert in China and Mongolia.
Savanna
 The savanna biome, which is a type of grassland biome, consists of areas of open grassland with very few trees.
There are two kinds of savannas: tropical and semi-tropical savannas. Animals including elephants, giraffes, lions
and cheetahs make their homes in the savanna. Due to its open environment, camouflage and mimicry are
essential for animal survival in the savanna. Savannas have extreme wet seasons and dry seasons. The seasons are
ones of extremes. Savannas can receive over four feet of rain during the wet season, and as little as a few inches
during the dry. Due to this lack of precipitation, it is very difficult for large plants like trees to grow in savannas.
While savannas are located on six of the seven continents, the largest are found in equatorial Africa.
Tropical Rainforest
 The tropical rainforest is a hot, moist biome found near Earth's equator. The world's largest tropical rainforests are
in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Tropical rainforests receive from 60 to 160 inches of precipitation
that is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The combination of constant warmth and abundant moisture
makes the tropical rainforest a suitable environment for many plants and animals. Tropical rainforests contain the
greatest biodiversity in the world. Over 15 million species of plants and animals live within this biome.
Tropical Rainforest
 The hot and humid conditions make tropical rainforests an ideal environment for bacteria and other microorganisms.
Because these organisms remain active throughout the year, they quickly decompose matter on the forest floor.
 Other biomes, such as the deciduous forest, the decomposition of leaf litter adds nutrients to the soil. But in the
tropical rainforest, plants grow so fast that they rapidly consume the nutrients from the decomposed leaf litter. As a
result, most of the nutrients are contained in the trees and other plants rather than in the soil. Most nutrients that
are absorbed into the soil are leached out by the abundant rainfall, which leaves the soil infertile and acidic.
 The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in
this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is
relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. This more open quality permits the easy
movement of larger animals such as: ungulates like the okapi (Okapia johnstoni), tapir (Tapirus sp.), Sumatran
rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), and apes like the western lowland gorilla(Gorilla gorilla), as well as many
species of reptiles, amphibians, and insects.
 The forest floor also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid
conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste.
LESSON 5
NATURAL RESOURCES
Introduction
 Natural Resources may be defined as any material given to us by nature which can be transformed in a
way that it becomes more valuable and useful.
 Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued
characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, electrical properties and forces, etc. On Earth it
includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation, crops and
animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances.
 Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within
the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level).
 A natural resources may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, and as well as any living
organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form that must be processed to obtain the resource
such as metal ores, rare earth metals, petroleum, and most forms of energy.
TYPES OF RESOURCES
Natural resources may be divided into two types:

 Biotic — Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), such
as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such
as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic
matter.
 Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material. Examples of
abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air, rare earth metals and heavy metals including ores, such
as, gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.
NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the following ways:
 Potential resources — Potential resources are those that may be used in the future—for
example, petroleum. in sedimentary rocks that, until drilled out and put to use remains
a potential resource
 Actual resources — Those resources that have been surveyed, quantified and qualified and, are
currently used—development, such as wood processing, depends on technology and cost
 Reserve resources — The part of an actual resource that can be developed profitably in the future
 Stock resources — Those that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due to lack of technology—for
example, hydrogen.
TYPES OF RESOURCES
Type of Resources:
 Renewable Resources
 Non-Renewable Resources
TYPES OF RESOURCES
Many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable:

 Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air,
wind, water, etc. are continuously available and their quantities are not noticeably affected by human consumption.
Though many renewable resources do not have such rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by
over-use. Resources from a human use perspective are classified as renewable so long as the rate of
replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. They replenish easily compared to Non-renewable
resources.
 Non-renewable resources– Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment.
Minerals are the most common resource included in this category. From the human perspective, resources are non-
renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are
fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of years),
meaning they are considered non-renewable. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human
interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, which naturally decay into heavy
metals. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, [5] but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.[6]
Once they are completely used they take millions of years to replenish.
What is Renewable Energy?
 A renewable resource is one that can be used repeatedly and does not run out because it is naturally
replaced. A renewable resource, essentially, has an endless supply such as solar energy, wind energy,
and geothermal pressure. Other resources are considered renewable even though some time or
effort must go into their renewal (e.g., wood, oxygen, leather, and fish).
What is Renewable Energy?
 Natural resources are a form of equity and they are known as natural capital. Biofuel, or energy made
from renewable organic products, has gained prevalence in recent years as an alternative energy
source to nonrenewable resources such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
 Types of biofuel include biodiesel, an alternative to oil, and green diesel, which is made from algae and
other plants. Other renewable resources include oxygen and solar energy. Wind and water are also
used to create renewable energy. For example, windmills harness the wind's natural power and turn it
into energy.
 Renewable resources have become a focal point of the environmental movement, both politically and
economically.
 Energy obtained from renewable resources puts much less strain on the limited supply of fossil fuels,
which are nonrenewable resources.
What is Non-Renewable Energy?
 A nonrenewable resource is a natural substance that is not replenished with the speed at which it is consumed.
It is a finite resource. Fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal are examples of nonrenewable resources.
Humans constantly draw on the reserves of these substances while the formation of new supplies takes eons.
Renewable resources are the opposite: Their supply replenishes naturally or can be sustained. The sunlight used
in solar power and the wind used to power wind turbines replenish themselves. Timber reserves can be
sustained through replanting.
 Nonrenewable resources come from the Earth. Humans extract them in gas, liquid, or solid form
and then convert them for their use, mainly related to energy. The reserves of these substances
took billions of years to form, and it will take billions of years to replace the supplies used.
 In economic terms, non-renewables are resources of economic value that cannot be readily
replaced at the speed with which they are being consumed. Examples of nonrenewable resources
include crude oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium. These are all resources that are processed into
products that can be used commercially.
 For example, the fossil fuel industry extracts crude oil from the ground and converts it to gasoline.
Fossil fuel liquids also are refined into petrochemical products that are used as ingredients in the
manufacture of literally hundreds of products from plastics and polyurethane to solvents.
 Most nonrenewable resources are formed from organic carbon material which is
heated and compressed over time, changing their form into crude oil or natural gas.
 The term nonrenewable resource also refers to minerals and metals from the earth,
such as gold, silver, and iron. These are similarly formed by a long-term geological
process. They are often costly to mine, as they are usually deep within the Earth's
crust. But they are much more abundant than fossil fuels.
 Some types of groundwater are considered nonrenewable resources if the aquifer is
unable to be replenished at the same rate at which it's drained.
Conservation of Natural Resources
 Conservation goals include conserve habitat, preventing deforestation, halting species extinction,

reducing overfishing and mitigating climate change. Different philosophical outlooks guide conservationists
towards the different goals.
 The principal value underlying many expressions of the conservation ethic is that the natural world has intrinsic
and intangible worth along with utilitarian value – a view carried forward by parts of the scientific conservation
movement and some of the older Romantic schools of ecology movement.
 More utilitarian schools of conservation have an anthropocentric outlook and seek a proper valuation of local and
global impacts of human activity upon nature in their effect upon human wellbeing, now and to posterity.
 Such values are assessed and exchanged among people determines the social, political, and personal restraints
and imperatives by which conservation is practiced. This is a view common in the modern environmental
movement. There is increasing interest in extending the responsibility for human wellbeing to include the welfare
of sentient animals.
 Branches of conservation ethics focusing on sentient creatures include ecofeminism and

compassionate conservation.
 The consumer conservation ethic is sometimes expressed by the four R's: " Rethink, Reduce, Recycle,
Repair" This social ethic primarily relates to local purchasing, moral purchasing, the sustained, and
efficient use of renewable resources, the moderation of destructive use of finite resources, and the
prevention of harm to common resources such as air and water quality, the natural functions of a
living earth, and cultural values in a built environment.
 Natural resources, especially water and soil, are essential for the function and structure of agricultural
production systems and for the overall social and environmental sustainability.
 Agriculture accounts for roughly 70% of total freshwater withdrawals globally. Farming also contributes to water
pollution from nutrient and pesticide run-off and soil erosion. Without improved efficiency measures, agricultural
water consumption is expected to rise by about 20% globally by 2050. Climate change is already affecting water
supply and agriculture through changes in the seasonal timing of rainfall and snow pack melt, as well as with higher
occurrence and severity of droughts and floods.
 One-third of the planet’s land is severely degraded and fertile soil is being lost at the rate of 24 billion tonnes a year
as a consequence of bad farming practices, such as heavy tilling, multiple sequential harvests and abundant use of
agrochemicals.
 An increase of productivity can help push progress towards future food security and the general wellbeing of
producers and rural communities globally, but given the limited natural resource base on which agriculture depend,
sustainable development will ultimately depend on the responsible management of the planet’s natural resources.
 SAN proposes a series of good practices to help reduce agriculture’s pressure on natural resources, and build more
efficient and resilient production systems.
 Impact delivering
 Our approach to a sustainable use of natural resources, includes practices that:
o Encourage the protection and restoration of water sources, and promote water use optimization.
o Require the implementation of systems for wastewater treatment before reuse or disposal.
o Foster soil conservation and improved carbon stocks.
o Promote waste reduction, recycling and responsible disposal.
-END OF
PRESENTATION-
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LISTINING! 

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GE-ES 3 units

A premier state university in southeast Asia that provides

The Palawan State University is committed to upgrade

Excellence, Leadership, Advocacy for

Interrelationship among Components of the natural world;

After Completing the course, the students shall be able to :

1. Class attendance is mandatory. A 10-minutes grace period will be given to a student.

Frontier Era in the U.S.

Beginning of Industrial-Medical Revolution

 Dr. John Snow (1854) – first to

Early Conservation Era in U.S. 1832-1960

20th Century: A Century of Growth

 Growing awareness of the effects of man-made threats

• Awakening of U.S. public to many

Environment consist of four segments under:

 Lithosphere- Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of

Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological, and cultural

 Environment issues being of International Importance.

 Growing Population  Degradation of Land

 Physical Environment- It refers to geographical climate and weather or physical

Physical Environment- It is classified as Solid, Liquid, Gas.

Biological Environment- It consist of Plants (Flora) and Animals (Fauna).

 Economic Man- Derives and utilizes resources from the physical

 Temperature- The ability to withstand extremes in temperature widely vary among

 Water- Precipitation of along with mean temperature determines the distribution of

Mutualism of Species 1 and Species 2 Beneficial Beneficial

Commensalism of Species 1 with Beneficial No effect

 Environmental Principle No. 1- Nature Knows Best

MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE IN ECOSYSTEM

 An integrated unit consisting of a community of organisms in the form of bacteria,

OTHER ACTIVITIES SYNTHESIS CELLULAR

Figure 8. Relationship among Metabolic Processes

Energy in an ecosystem originally comes from the sun.

 Also called as Autotrophs.

Producer That Captures Energy from the sun by:

 Capture energy from the bonds of inorganic

Called a Black smoker (thermal vent)

 Also called as Heterotrophs.

Three Types of Consumers:

 All organisms require energy, for growth, maintenance, reproduction, locomotion,

Rice Rats Snake Eagle Mushrooms & Bacteria

HEAT HEAT HEAT HEAT HEAT

Figure 1.Energy Flow Through Ecosystem

 Food chain or food web support the 1st law of thermodynamics.

 What happens to the energy in the end?

Food Web is a complex

Graphic Representations Of The

• Indicates the energy content, often expressed

• Shows the total biomass at each

• Shows the number of organisms

The Gross Primary Production (GPP) of an ecosystem is the rate at which

Net Primary Productivity = Gross Primary Productivity – Plant Respiration

 Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle

 During Photosynthesis, Plants , Algae, and cyanobacteria remove Carbon Dioxide

Carbon Cycle Steps:

• Producers are Eaten

• Decomposers Release Carbon