Superstructure Construction: ©ramaiah University of Applied Sciences Faculty of Engineering & Technology

SUPERSTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
1
Faculty of Engineering & Technology ©Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Vacuum De-watered Concrete Floor
2
Vacuum De-watered Concrete Floor
• Invariable known as VDF or Tremix floor continues to be the most

preferred and cost available floors for various industries for many
years
• Concrete of the required grade such as M20, M25 etc (basically

means having a compressive strength of 200Kg/cm2, 250Kg/cm2
etc) are poured over the PCC and reinforcement bars as per design
• Excess water is removed in a controlled fashion by applying vacuum
• The concrete is then power-trowelled to obtain a smooth and

dense concrete
3
Vacuum De-watered Concrete Floor – contd..
• VDF floors are known to provide a good concrete floor and is known
to achieve strength earlier than a control concrete
• However, contrary to the popular belief, for a specified design mix,

the compressive strength cannot be more than the targeted
strength
• Due to controlled water-removal as well as power-trowelling, the

surface is quite dense and levelled and hence is expected to
provide a better abrasion resistance than a non-VDF concrete floor
4
Advantages
• It is the most cost-effective solution as the cost of laying M35
concrete is cheaper than other options
• It can be laid by any quality flooring contractors
• Durable
• Fairly maintenance-free
5
Disadvantages
• The inherent porosity of the concrete allows water, oil and grease
to seep through, consequently weakening the concrete
• Joints are a necessity for concrete floors (to accommodate

shrinkage, thermal movements etc) which can lead to joint-
breakage as well as seepage of the above contaminants
• Concrete floors generate dust due to abrasive movement of

vehicles commonly found in industrial plants which can cause
tangible and intangible damage to plant and machinery, sub-
assemblies etc.
6
Disadvantages – contd..
• Cleanability becomes a problem due to the presence of
imperfections, surface roughness and porosity
• The best-laid floor (Tremix) can have undulations of above 5mm

(not normally visible to naked eye). While it is typically accepted in
various engineering industries, it must be kept in mind that heavy
movement of vehicles can wear out the surface faster
7
Launching Techniques
• Full span launching technique

• Segmental launching technique
8
Equipments used
• Main girder
• Series of rail-beams
• Sliding rollers
• Hoisting winches
9
Construction Methodology
• Segments are cast in the casting

yard
• launching girder is used for
erection of precast segments
• The launching girder provided
with hangers to hold the
segments during erection
• Each segments is joined to the
other using epoxy glue
• Post-tensioned to form the final
span
10
Cont..
Advantages
o Structurally efficient and aesthetic
o It is economical for large project

o Rapid & safe
o Cast during substructure works – overlap of activities
Disadvantages
o Casting yard setup and transportation
11
Slipform Techniques
Its continuous pouring of concrete into walls of a structure and

only stops when the full required height or length of the structure
has been reached.
The formwork is erected only once and remains intact until

the entire structure is completed.
12
Cont..
Vertical Slipform:
• The concrete form and
working platform are raised
by means of hydraulic jacks
Ex: Silos, chimneys, tall

buildings and bridges
13
Cont..
Horizontal Slipform:
• Concrete is laid down,
vibrated, worked, and settled
in place while the form itself
slowly moves ahead
• Ex: Pavement and traffic

separation wall, canals, and
tunneling
14
Cont..
Advantages
• Accuracy, strength and speed
• Continual casting, creating a monolithic structure
• No joints (unless a halt occurs)
• Lends itself to almost any shape in plan

• Labor saving in the long run
• Saves form-work material

• Economical for structures above a certain size
15
Cont..
Disadvantages
• Good coordination and site organization required
• Large quantities of equipment (e.g. generators, lighting systems,
and hoists) needed
• Operation cannot easily be halted so that work must continue 24
hours a day through all weather
• Skilled labor force
• High initial expense
• Need 24-hour service facilities (e.g. canteen, material supply,
maintenance crews)
16
Suspended Formwork
17
18
Large Span Structures
• Shell structures
• Folded plate
• Steel space frame
• Coffered slab
• North light roof
• Patent glazing
19
Cont...
• Steel space frame

• Coffered slab
• North light roof
• Patent glazing
20
Shell Structures
• Is a curved surface structure
• Transmits load without bending or twisting
• Thickness is small compared to its other dimension
Application: Roof structures
21
Cont..
Depending upon the geometry of middle surface the shells can be

classified as :
1.Domes
2.Shell Barrel Arch / Vault
3.Translation shells
4.Ruled Surfaces shell
22
Dome
•Hemispherical in shape
•Constructed of stone , concrete & brick
•Have certain height & diameter ratio
Ribbed shell domes
23
Cont..
Smooth shell domes, Abudhabi 24

Different Types Of Dome
Spherical dome Triangular dome
Cylindrical dome Rectangular dome 25

Folded Plate Structures
• Flat plates are connected to one another along their edges
• Used in long span especially for roofs
• Give mutual support to each other
• Plates may be continuous over their supports longitudinally
• These plates carry the load from slab longitudinally to the support
26
Folded Plate Structures
27
Steel Space Frame Structures
• Are used in the form of grids of rectangular, diagonal , triangular or

hexagon pattern, arches domes &other large column free areas
• Deflection of the truss is transmitted to the adjoining trusses & the
entire roof works act more or less monolithically
• Are stiffer than system of parallel trusses
• Shallower in depth
28
Steel Space Frame Structures
29
Different Types Of Space Frame
Structures
Braced barrel vault structure Hipped end structure
Geodesic dome structure 30

Coffered slab Structures
• Coffered/Ribbed/waffle slabs provide a

lighter and stiffer slab than an equivalent flat
slab, reducing the extend of foundations
• They provide a very good form where slab

vibration is an issue, such as laboratories and
hospitals
31
North light structure
Is a structure used to take natural day light from north side

•Consists of a series of trusses fixed to girders
•The short vertical side of the truss is glazed so that when the roof is
used in the Northern Hemisphere, the glazed portion faces North for
the best light
•Saves energy
•It can be used for spans from 20-30m
Application: Used for industrial buildings, drawing rooms ,
laboratories, etc
32
North light structure
33
Patent Glazing
• Non-load bearing framing system

• Used in overhead glazing system
• Economic alternative to four edge support curtain walling
• Slim profiles allow the full use of natural light in the building
Application: Railway stations, shopping malls, atria, schools, canopies,
roofs & north light glazing
34
Patent Glazing
35
Post Tensioning of Slab
Post-tensioned slabs use high

strength tensioned steel cables
to compress the slabs, keeping
the majority of the concrete in
compression.
Ex: Flat slabs, ribbed slabs etc
36
37
Cont..
Step by step procedure:

• Placing of tendons before pouring concrete
• Concreting of slab
• Prestressing tendons
• Grouting
38
Cont..
Advantages
• Fire resistance
• Cost
• Speed
• Reduced material use
• Sound control
• Robustness
Post Tensioning of Beam
39
Cont..
Support structures for heavy equipment and machinery in heavy
industries
• Building, bridges & metro projects-Pile caps
• Turbine, power plant & wind farm- Raft foundation over piles
40
Cont..
Support structures for heavy equipment and machinery
in heavy industries
41
Erecting Light Weight Components On Tall Structures
42
Erecting Light Weight Components On Tall
Structures
• Besides high raise buildings the usage of steel element is also
popular with construction of hospital and commercial complexes
• Instead of concrete beams and columns more than 6100 tons of

steel have been used to build the main frames
• Light weight blocks are used for patricians to reduce the dead load
building
• The usage of permanent concrete form works and structural steel

elements will be the main constituter for erecting light weight
components on tall structures results rapid speed of constructions
43
Erecting Light Weight Components On Tall
Structures – contd..
• Hence the erection of steel beams and columns as well as the
installation of concrete form work consumes only less time
• Self drilling tapping screws are the most prevalent fasteners
• Steel to steel connections can be carried out to connect struts or

joist and track together
• Entire can be erected manually with out the use of heavy

equipment
44
Construction of Special Structures
45
Erection of lattice towers
• A lattice tower or truss tower is a freestanding frame work tower
• They can be used as electricity transmission towers especially for

voltages above 100 kilovolts, as a radio tower(a self-radiating tower
or as a carrier for aerials) or as an observation tower
46
Erection of lattice towers – contd..
47
Tower Erection
• The towers shall be erected on the foundations not less than 14
days after concreting or till such time that the concrete has
acquired sufficient strength.
48
Tower Erection
49
Tower Erection
• The towers are erected as per the

erection drawings furnished by the
manufacturers to facilitate erection
• No member shall be subjected to

any undue over stress during
erection
50
Tower Erection – contd..
There are three main methods of erection of steel transmission

towers
a)Built up method or Piecemeal method
b) Section method
c) Ground assembly method
51
Tower Erection – contd..
Advantages
a)Tower materials can be supplied to site in knocked down condition,

i.e., in pieces which facilitates easier and cheaper transportation
b) It does not require any heavy machinery such as cranes, etc.
c) Tower erection activity can be done in any kind of terrain and

throughout most of the year
d) Availability of workmen at cheaper rates
52
Built Up Method
• This method consists of erecting the towers member by member
• The tower members are first set out and kept on the ground serially
according to erection sequence to avoid time loss due to searching
for them as and when required
• The erection progresses from the bottom upwards
• The four main corner leg members of the first section of the tower
are first erected and kept in position by fixing temporary rope guys.
53
Built Up Method – contd..
• The cross bracings of the first section, which may be assembled on
the ground, are raised one by one as a unit and bolted to the
already erected corner leg angles
• For smaller base towers / vertical configuration towers, one

derrick / gin pole is used
• For assembling the second section of the tower, the derrick / gin
pole is placed on the top of one corner leg. First, the leg members
of the second section are hoisted and assembled
54
• The derrick is then shifted to the

corner leg member on the top of the
second section to raise the parts of
third section of the tower in position
for assembly
55
• For heavier towers, a small

boom is rigged on one of the
tower legs for hoisting purposes
• The members / sections can be

hoisted either manually or by
pulling with a tractor or by
winch machines operated from
the ground
56
Helicopter Method
• The tower is erected in sections
• Bottom section is first lifted on to the stub and then the upper
section is lifted and bolted to first section and the process is
repeated till the tower is erected
• Some times complete assembled tower is raised with the help of

helicopter
• Adopted with the approach is impossible
57
58
General Steps To Be Followed For Tower Erection
• No tower shall be erected on foundation within 10 days after
concreting
• Check the correctness of diagonal and level of the stub of the

foundation
• Towers are to be erected as per erection drawing
• Assembly of tower parts shall be made as per the assigned number

in the erection drawing
• Special care shall be taken in selection of marking for transverse

and longitudinal face of the square base tower
59
General Steps To Be Followed For Tower Erection –
contd..
• Any buckling, damage to steel member, damage to galvanizing shall
be avoided
• No member shall be subjected to undue stress
• Reason can be
– Defective fabrication
– Defective foundation
– Defective erection method
• Collect material from store tallying with Bill of Materials (BOM)
60
General Steps To Be Followed For Tower Erection –
contd..
• Transport complete tower or complete section
• The tower member at location shall be kept on ground serially

according to the need for following up erection sequence
61
Tower Erection
62
Safety of Tower Erection
• While loading and unloading the tower parts, care should be taken
for stacking systematically
• Handle the tower parts carefully – suitable gloves
• Establish clear signal / communication between the persons

working on the top and the workmen supplying tower parts –
special care shall be taken for RC tower
• All lifting tools and tackles should be load tested as per standard
63
Safety of Tower Erection – contd..
• Ensure the derrick used before tower erection has been checked for
adequate strength / size
• Keep watch on all workmen used during erection – slippage /

failure
• Polypropylene rope from 20mm to 25mm size should be used for

guying and lifting
• After 5 operations check the condition of the rope. If worn out then
replace
64
Safety of Tower Erection – contd..
• All tower members to be fitted with appropriate size of nuts and

bolts of the section erected before the erection is taken up for the
next section
• Avoid any tower erection during rain / cloudy day
• Stop all tower erection in case of heavy wind or approaching storm
• PPE like helmet, safety belt of proper quality is used
65
Rigging
• The system of equipment used to secure cargo for carriage, e.g.

straps, cables, clevises, shackles, spreader bars, hooks, etc.
66
Cooling tower
• A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which extracts waste heat

to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower
temperature
67
Cooling tower – contd..
68
PRESTRESSING
69
Prestressing
• Method of applying pre-compression to control the stresses

resulting due to external loads below the neutral axis of the beam
tension developed due to external load which is more than the
permissible limits of the plain concrete
• The precompression applied (may be axial or eccentric) will induce

the compressive stress below the neutral axis or as a whole of the
beam c/s
• Resulting either no tension or compression
70
Prestressing – Classification and Types
• Pre-tensioning
– Tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed, tendons
are temporarily anchored and tensioned and the prestress is
transferred to the concrete after it is hardened
• Post-tensioning
– Tendon is tensioned after concrete has hardened
– Tendons are placed in sheathing at suitable places in the
member before casting and later after hardening of concrete
71
Tensioning Devices
• Mechanical Devices
– The mechanical devices generally used include weights with or
without lever transmission, geared transmission in conjunction
with pulley blocks, screw jacks with or without gear devices and
wire-winding machines
– These devices are employed mainly for prestressing structural

concrete components produced on a mass scale in factory
72
Tensioning Devices – contd..
• Hydraulic Devices
– These are simplest means for producing large prestressing force,
extensively used as tensioning devices
• Electrical devices
– The wires are electrically heated and anchored before placing
concrete in the mould
– This method is often referred to as thermo-prestressing and
used for tensioning of steel wires and deformed bars
73
Tensioning Devices – contd..
• Chemical Devices
– Expanding cements are used and the degree of expansion is
controlled by varying the curing condition
– Since the expansive action of cement while setting is restrained,

it induces tensile forces in tendons and compressive stresses in
concrete
74
Prestressing System
• Pre-tensioning System
– Tendons are first tensioned between rigid anchor-blocks cast on
the ground or in a column or unit –mould types pre-tensioning
bed, prior to the casting of concrete in the mould
– The tendons comprising individual wires or strands are stretched

with constant eccentricity or a variable eccentricity with tendon
anchorage at one end and jacks at the other
– With the forms in place, the concrete is cast around the stressed
tendon
75
Prestressing System – contd..
• Pre-tensioning System – contd..
76
Prestressing System
• Post-tensioned System
– The concrete unit are first cast by incorporating ducts or grooves
to house the tendons
– When the concrete attains sufficient strength, the high-tensile
wires are tensioned by means of jack bearing on the end of the
face of the member and anchored by wedge or nuts
– The forces are transmitted to the concrete by means of end
anchorage and, when the cable is curved, through the radial
pressure between the cable and the duct
– The space between the tendons and the duct is generally
grouted after the tensioning operation
77
Summary
• Vertical slipform - The concrete form and working

platform are raised by means of hydraulic jacks
• Horizontal slipform - Concrete is laid down, vibrated,

worked, and settled in place while the form itself slowly
moves ahead
• Folded plate structures - Flat plates are connected to one

another along their edges
78
Summary – contd..
• Folded plate structures - Used in long span especially for

roofs Give mutual support to each other
• Plates may be continuous over their supports

longitudinally
• There are three main methods of erection of steel

transmission towers - Built up method or Piecemeal
method, Section method and Ground assembly method
79
Summary – contd..
• All tower members to be fitted with appropriate size of

nuts and bolts of the section erected before the erection
is taken up for the next section
• Avoid any tower erection during rain / cloudy day
• Stop all tower erection in case of heavy wind or

approaching storm
• PPE like helmet, safety belt of proper quality is used

80
Summary – contd..
• Pre-stressing
• Method of applying pre-compression to control the stresses
resulting due to external loads below the neutral axis of the beam
tension developed due to external load which is more than the
permissible limits of the plain concrete
• The pre-compression applied (may be axial or eccentric) will induce

the compressive stress below the neutral axis or as a whole of the
beam c/s
• Resulting either no tension or compression
81
Summary – contd..
• Pre-tensioning
– Tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed, tendons
are temporarily anchored and tensioned and the prestress is
transferred to the concrete after it is hardened
• Post-tensioning
– Tendon is tensioned after concrete has hardened
– Tendons are placed in sheathing at suitable places in the
member before casting and later after hardening of concrete
82

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SUPERSTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

• Invariable known as VDF or Tremix floor continues to be the most

• Concrete of the required grade such as M20, M25 etc (basically

• Excess water is removed in a controlled fashion by applying vacuum

• The concrete is then power-trowelled to obtain a smooth and

• However, contrary to the popular belief, for a specified design mix,

• Due to controlled water-removal as well as power-trowelling, the

• It can be laid by any quality flooring contractors

• Joints are a necessity for concrete floors (to accommodate

• Concrete floors generate dust due to abrasive movement of

• The best-laid floor (Tremix) can have undulations of above 5mm

• Full span launching technique

• Segments are cast in the casting

o It is economical for large project

Its continuous pouring of concrete into walls of a structure and

The formwork is erected only once and remains intact until

Ex: Silos, chimneys, tall

• Ex: Pavement and traffic

• Lends itself to almost any shape in plan

• Saves form-work material

• Steel space frame

Depending upon the geometry of middle surface the shells can be

Application: Roof structures

Ribbed shell domes

Smooth shell domes, Abudhabi 24

Spherical dome Triangular dome

Cylindrical dome Rectangular dome 25

• Are used in the form of grids of rectangular, diagonal , triangular or

Braced barrel vault structure Hipped end structure

Geodesic dome structure 30

• Coffered/Ribbed/waffle slabs provide a

• They provide a very good form where slab

Is a structure used to take natural day light from north side

• Non-load bearing framing system

Post-tensioned slabs use high

Step by step procedure:

• Instead of concrete beams and columns more than 6100 tons of

• The usage of permanent concrete form works and structural steel

• Self drilling tapping screws are the most prevalent fasteners

• Steel to steel connections can be carried out to connect struts or

• Entire can be erected manually with out the use of heavy

• A lattice tower or truss tower is a freestanding frame work tower

• They can be used as electricity transmission towers especially for

• The towers are erected as per the

• No member shall be subjected to

There are three main methods of erection of steel transmission

a)Built up method or Piecemeal method

a)Tower materials can be supplied to site in knocked down condition,

b) It does not require any heavy machinery such as cranes, etc.

c) Tower erection activity can be done in any kind of terrain and

d) Availability of workmen at cheaper rates

• The erection progresses from the bottom upwards

• For smaller base towers / vertical configuration towers, one

• The derrick is then shifted to the

• For heavier towers, a small

• The members / sections can be

• Some times complete assembled tower is raised with the help of

• Adopted with the approach is impossible

• Check the correctness of diagonal and level of the stub of the

• Towers are to be erected as per erection drawing

• Assembly of tower parts shall be made as per the assigned number

• Special care shall be taken in selection of marking for transverse

• No member shall be subjected to undue stress