ME8501 – Metrology & Measurements

Unit 1 - BASICS OF METROLOGY

Introduction to Metrology – Need – Elements – Work piece,
Instruments – Persons – Environment – their effect on
Precision and Accuracy – Errors – Errors in Measurements –
Types – Control – Types of standards.
Measurement is a comparison of a given quantity with one of its predetermined
standard values opted as a unit.

Need for measurement:

 To ensure that the part to be measured conforms to the established standard.
 To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
 To provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no faulty product reaches the
customers.
 To coordinate the functions of quality control, production, procurement & other
departments of the organization.
 To judge the possibility of making some of the defective parts acceptable after
minor repairs.
Metrology is mainly concerned with the following elements:
1. Units of measurement and their standards
2. Errors of measurement
3. Changing units in the form of standards
4. Enduring the uniformity of measurements
5. Developing new methods of measurements
6. Analyzing the new methods and their accuracy
7. Establishing uncertainty of measurement
8. Gauges design, manufacturing and testing
9. Researching the causes of measuring errors
10. Industrial inspection.
Legal metrology
 It is part of metrology and it is directed by a National Organization
which is called “National Service of Legal Metrology”.
 It maintains the uniformity of measurement in a particular country.

Applications:
1. Industrial measurement
2. Commercial transactions
3. Public health and human safety ensuring.
Functions:

 To ensure the conservation of national standards

 To guarantee their accuracy by comparison with international standards
 To organize training in this field
 To take part in the work of other National Organizations
 To impart the proper accuracy to secondary standards
 To carry out scientific and technical works in the field of measurement
 To regulate, supervise and control the manufacturer
 To give advise to repair of measuring instruments
 To inspect and detect the guitly of measurement.
Methods of Measurements:
1. Direct method (eg: comparison - length, mass)
2. Indirect method (eg: mathematical equation - velocity)
3. Contact & contactless methods (eg: projection comparator)
4. Coincidence method (eg: measurement of length by Vernier caliper)
5. Fundamental method (eg: base quantity define the quantity –
pressure from density)
6. Comparison method (eg: function of quantity – pressure: bourdon
tube)
7. Substitution method (eg: indicating device – temperature:
thermometer)
8. Transposition method (eg: measurement of mass by gauss double
weighing method)
9. Differential method (eg: determination of diameter with master cylinder
on a comparator)
10. Null method (eg: measurement of electrical resistance using wheatstone
bridge and null indicator)
11. Deflection method (eg: measurement of length by dial indicator)
12. Complementary method (eg: determination of the volume of a solid by
liquid displacement)
 Elements of Measurement systems:

Input
Manipulation
Primary stage Conversion stage
stage

Analogous
output Amplified signal

Read out
recording stage
 Primary or Input sensing stage
 Secondary stage or Conversion stage
 Tertiary stage or Manipulation stage
 Final stage or Readout – Recording stage
Classification of measuring instruments:
1. On the basis of function
a) Length measuring instruments
b) Angle measuring instruments
c) Geometrical form checking instruments
d) Surface finish – checking instruments
2. On the basis of accuracy
e) Most accurate instruments. Eg: light interference instruments
f) Moderate accurate instruments. Eg: comparators.
g) Below moderate accurate instruments. Eg: dial indicator
3. On the basis of precision
h) Precision measuring instruments
i) Non precision measuring instruments
Characteristics of measuring instrument:

 Sensitivity:
It is the degree of response of an instrument to an incoming signal. It is the
ratio of the change in the output of an indicating instrument or transducer to
the change in the value of the measured quantity.

 Stability:
It is the property of a measuring instrument, whereby its metrological
properties remain constant with time. It helps to evaluate the performance of
an measurement device over time.
 Hysteresis:
It is the difference between the indications of a measuring instrument when
the same value of the measured quantity is reached by increasing or
decreasing that quantity.

 Range:
It describes the lowest to highest values that can be measured using that
particular instrument.

 Span:
The difference between the highest and lowest calibration point is called span.
 Linearity:
Linearity of an instrument refers to the output that is directly proportional to
input over its entire range,
 
 Non linearity:
Non linearity of an instrument refers to the output that is not proportional to
input over its entire range.

 Threshold:
The minimum value of input below which no output value is achieved is
known as threshold.
 Repeatability and reproducibility:
Repeatability may be defined as the ability of the instrument to give same
output reading when the same input value is applied repeatedly under the
same operating conditions.
 
Reproducibility may be defined as the degree of closeness among the repeated
measurements of the output for the same value of input under the same
operating conditions at different times.

 Response time:
The time taken by an instrument to approach its true output when subjected to
a step input is sometimes referred to as its response time.
 Dead band/time:
Dead band of an instrument is the range of input values for which the
instrument does not respond. The dead band is typically a region of input
close to zero at which the output remains zero.

Dead time is the time taken by the sensor from the application of input to
begin its response and change.

 Zero Drift:
Drift is the variation of change in output for a given input over a period of
time.
 Resolution:
It is defined as the smallest change that can be detected by an
instrument. It can also be defined as the maximum value of the input
required to cause an appreciable change or an increment in the
output.

 Fidelity:
The degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in a measured
value without dynamic error is called fidelity.
Accuracy Vs Precision

 Accuracy refers to the trueness of a measured value, ie, the proximity of

the mean value of the measurement results to the actual or true value of the
measured quantity.

 Precision refers to the closeness of the individual results of repeated

measurements of the same quantity.
SI Units
S.No Physical Quantity Unit name Unit symbol

Fundamental Units

1 Length Meter m

2 Mass Kilogram kg

3 Time Second s

4 Electric current Ampere A

5 Temperature Kelvin K

6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd

7 Amount of substance mole mol

Supplementary Units

1 Plane angle Radian rad

2 Solid angle Steradian sr

Derived units:
 Mechanical units: Units for force, pressure, stress, weight, torque,
acceleration, velocity, density etc.

 Electric and magnetic units: Units for power, energy, electric

resistance, electric field strength, electric capacitance, magnetic
flux, magnetic field strength, magnetic flux density etc.

 Thermal units: Units for specific heat capacity, laten heat, sensible
heat etc.
Pearson

 Man is the measure of all “things” stated by Protagoras.

 In science, the observer effect refers to changes that the act of observation

will make on a phenomenon being observed.

 In a control theory, a state observer is a system that provides an estimate of

the internal state of a given real system from measurements of the input

and output of the real system.

Environment:
 Vernier scale division (VSD) of Vernier caliper always changes when the
measurement process is carried for “N” number of times for the same
dimension. It is due to the one of the reasons of change in ambient
temperature.

 Environment is indirectly related to temperature, humidity, conditioning and

pre conditioning.
 Standards:
 It is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate measure of
physical quantity is termed as standard. These standards are used to determine the values of
physical quantities by a comparison method.

 Depending on the functions and applications, different types of standards of measurement are
classified as follows:

1. International standards

2. Primary standards

3. Secondary standards

4. Working standards
Types of measuring Instruments:

 Deflection and null type instruments

 Analog and digital instruments
 Active and passive instruments
 Automatic and manually operated instruments
 Contacting and non contacting instruments
 Absolute and secondary instruments
 Intelligent instruments.
Pearson and Environment effect on
Precision and Accuracy
Typical source of errors in all measurements:

1. Device accuracy

2. Procedural effects

3. Environmental effects
Errors in measurement:
 Error is the difference between the measured value and the true value.

 The errors in measurement can be expressed either as an absolute error or relative error.

 True absolute error: Algebraic difference between the results of measurement and the true
value of the quantity measured is called true absolute error.

 Apparent absolute error: while taking the series of measurement, the algebraic difference
between one of the results of measurement to the arithmetic mean is called apparent absolute
error.

 Random error: It is defined as the result of absolute error and the value of comparison used
for the calculation of absolute error.
 Characteristic error

Static error Reading error

Calibration error
Loading error Environmental error
Ambient error
Error
Systematic error
Avoidable error

Dynamic error Stylus pressure

Instrumental error
Random error
Environmental error
Problem 1:

A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 6 ohms in the unknown arm

of the bridge to produce a 2 mm change in the deflection of the
galvanometer. Determine the bridge sensitivity.

Problem 2:

The amplifier system of a CRO is stated to have a sensitivity of 2.2

cm/V. What would be the deflection on the screen for an input of
0.38V.
Problem 3:

The individual sensitivities of different elements comprising a temperature

measuring system are given below.

Transducer = 0.3 ohm/ºC

Wheatstone bridge = 0.01 V/ohm

Amplifier gain = 80 V/V

Pen recorder = 1.2 mm/V

Determine the overall sensitivity and the temperature change corresponding

to a recorder pen movement of 30 mm.