PSYCHOLOGY : UNIT IV

Ms. Manisha Samanta

Tutor
Institute of Nursing, BWU
MOTIVATION
 Introduction
Psychology deals with:
• What people do
• Why they do
Motivation:
• Why they do
• How they behave
 Introduction
• Derived from
Latin word MOVERE – To move

• Motive - something (a need or desire) that causes a

person to act

• Motivate- to provide with a motive

• Motivation- Act or process of providing a motive that

causes a person to take some action
 Introduction
Need Behavior Reward (when need is
fulfilled).

Internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it

direction
 Needs
• General wants/desire & very basis of our
behavior.
• Needs motivate us to act

• Basic needs: The absolute needs that every

human being needs and other needs cannot
imagined without fulfillment of these needs.
 Needs
• Fulfillment of basic needs is essential for life and
is the motivating force behind human behavior.

• Basic human needs:

Physical, emotional, social and intellectual

• Leads to maintain and actualize or enhance

themselves in the world.
General classification of basic needs

Biological

Psychosocial
 Biological needs
• What our body needs in order to survive
• Generally caused by bodily wants
• Also called physiological/unlearned needs

• Includes all our bodily or organic needs like

Need for O2, food, water, temperature, rest, sleep
and sex etc.
 Biological needs
• Need for O2, water and food :
 Most fundamental for our survival and existence
 Prolonged deprivation may lead to death
 O2 is most essential (cell requires it)
 Healthy people drink fluids to satisfy thirst &
maintain fluid balance
 Food is physiological need
 Biological needs
• Need for temperature, rest and sleep:
 essential for survival of existence
 Human body functions best at 98.6 F
 Rest and sleep allow time for the body to rejuvenate
and be free of stress.
 Biological needs
• Need for sex:
 seeking sex experiences is not essential for survival
of the individual.
 But the satisfaction of this need and normal sexual
behavior is most essential for happy domestic life
and the continuity and survival of the human species.
 Psychosocial needs
• Acquired through social learning and contact with
others.
• Dynamic forces underlying behavior
• Linked with sociocultural environment and
psychological make up of an individual.

• Also termed as secondary needs

 Psychosocial needs
• Psychosocial needs are-
 Freedom
 Safety and Security
 Love and belonging
 Recognition and social approval
 Social company
 Self-assertion(desire to get an opportunity to
dominate over others)
 Self-actualization
 Drives
• A drive is an aroused state resulting from some bodily or
tissue need.

• Deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at

a goal or an incentive.

• For example lack of food produces certain changes in the

blood indicating a need for food, which in turn creates a
drive state of arousal or tension. The individual seeks to
reduce this drive by doing something to satisfy the need.
 Drives
• Need refers to the physiological state of tissue
deprivation, whereas drive refers to the
psychological consequences of a need.

• Drive doesn’t necessarily get stronger as need gets

stronger.

• Two categories- Biological/Primary drive &

Socio-psychological/Secondary drive
 Biological Drives
• Biological needs produce biological drive

• For example hunger, thirst, sex and escape from

pain.

• Unlearned in nature

• Result of a biological mechanism called

homeostasis
 Biological Drives
Homeostasis:
• Body system works to maintain optimum level of
functioning between input and output.

• For example, when blood sugar drops, signal goes

to brain which activate hunger drive and make one
feel hungry. After having food body returns to
normal state of balance.
 Socio-psychological Drives
• It includes fear or anxiety, desire for approval,
striving for achievement, aggression and
dependence.

• These drives are not related to our physiological

needs and therefore do not arise on account of
imbalance in the body’s internal functioning.

• They arise from socio-psychological needs

 Incentives
• Anything that incites, rouses or encourages a
person

• Drives are influenced and guided by incentives

• Praise, appreciation, regards, bonus etc.

• Reinforcing agent.
 Motives
• The word means “which moves”

• Energetic Force or tendency (learned/innate)that

determine the activity of an individual

• Working within individual to inspire him to act for

the satisfaction of basic needs or attainment of
some specific purposes.

• Form of various needs, desires and aspirations

 Motives

• It energizes and direct his behavior along this/that

channels. When a motive is at work, it creates
tension and this arouses the individuals towards an
activity that will relieve the tension.
 Motives : Definitions
• A need gives rise to one or more motives. A motive is a
rather specific process which has been learned. It is
directed towards a goal.(Carol-1969)

• A motive may be defined as a readiness or disposition to

respond in some ways and not others to a variety of
situations. (Rosen, Fox and Gregory-1972)

• A motive is an inclination or impulse to an action with

some degree of orientation or direction. (Fisher)
 Nature of Motives
• Generated through basic needs or drives

• Compels an individual to respond by creating a kind of

tension or urge to act

• Goal directed activity

• Attainment of a goal helps in the release of tension

aroused by a specific motive.
 Nature of Motives
• A change in goal may bring changes in the nature and
strength of the motive

• Inner state

• Experience motives as feelings of want, need and desire.

• Learned or innate

• Cannot see motives directly but must infer them from the
behavior of people.
 Classification of motives

Innate or unlearned

Acquired or learned
 Classification of motives

Physiological or Social or
primary secondary

Personal Unconscious
 Physiological/Primary motives
Biological or organic motives
• Hunger
• Thirst
• Respiratory (air & oxygen)
• Need for Rest and sleep
• Need for Elimination of waste
• Sex
 Social/Secondary motives
• Affiliation (love for company)
• Need for status
• Power
• Social approval
 Personal motives
Our wants and aspirations which are not shared
commonly by others.
• Need for achievement
• Vocational ambitions and life goals
• Levels of aspiration
• Force of Habit
• Interests and Attitudes
• Curiosity
• Fear
 Unconscious motives
• We are not aware of these

• May be in form of our repressed desires or

wishes or complexes

• Phobias, eccentric likes and dislikes, neuroses,

psychosis
 Motivation
Motivation is an internal feeling and a
psychological phenomenon which generates
within an individual.

Processes that account for an individual’s

intensity, direction and persistence of effort
towards attaining a goal.
Key elements
Intensity : how hard a
person tries

Direction: toward
benificial/goal

Persistence: how long a

person tries
 Motivation : definitions
• The driving force within individuals by which they
attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfill some
needs or expectation. (Harmer, 2001)
• “Process of stimulating people to action to
accomplish desired goals.”
W. G. Scott
 Motivation and Behavior
• Motivation acts as the immediate force to energize,
direct, sustain and stop a behavior

• Motives are powerful tool for explaining behavior.

• Motives help us to make predictions about behavior

in many different situations
 Motivation and Behavior
• Motives do not tell us exactly what will happen, they
give us an idea about the range of things a person
will do.

• Motives are inner forces that control an individual’s

behavior in a subtle manner.
 Motivation: Nature & Characteristics
• Psychological aspect
• Unique to each and every person
• Continuous process
• Component of directing
• Goals directed
• Integrated
• Positive or negative
• Complex and dynamic process
 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
• Theories of motivation try to provide general sets of
principles to guide our understanding of the urges,
wants, needs, desires and goals which fall under
the category of motivation.
 Instinct theory of Motivation
• Instinct or innate behavior is the inherent inclination of a living
organism toward a particular complex behavior.

• The instinct theory is a major theory in the psychology of

motivation.

• It says that animals/humans do something because of innate

programming.

• For example, a spider making a web

 Instinct theory of Motivation
• People and animals are born with preprogrammed sets of
behaviors essential to their survival.

• These instincts provide the energy that channels behavior in

appropriate directions.

• Do not have to be learned.

 Instinct theory of Motivation
• According to William Mc Dougall all behavioral acts are
essentially instinctive and this instinctive behavior is found to
have three aspects:
a. Cognitive (Knowing)
b. Affective (Feeling)
c. Conative (Doing or Acting)

For example, when a person sees a dog is running to him/her, first

he/she sees the dog, second, he/she experiences an emotion of
fear and third tries to escape.
 Drive theory of Motivation
• Developed by Clark Leonard Hull in 1943.

• When people lack some basic biological requirement such as

water, a drive to obtain that requirement (thirst drive) is
produced.

• Drives are mainly responsible for initiating and maintaining the

primary responses.
 Drive theory of Motivation

• Drive theories might be described as the ‘push theories of

motivation’

• Behavior is “pushed” towards goals by driving states within the

person.

• It includes primary and secondary drives i.e. innate and learned

drives.
 Drive theory of Motivation

• Drive theories say,

When an internal drive state is aroused, the individual is pushed to
engage in behavior which will lead to goal, reducing the intensity of
the drive state.
• Motivation consists of :
I. A drive state
II. Goal directed behavior initiated by the drive state
III. The attainment of an appropriate goal
IV. The reduction of the drive state & subjective
 1.
Driving
state

2.
4.
The
motivational Goal
Relief directed
cycle behavior

3.
Achievement
of goal
 Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory of Motivation
• Developed in 1953 by Sigmund Freud.

• Two main instincts: Life & Death account for all human behavior

• He declared sex gratification as the sole motive for energizing

human behavior.

• Unconscious also is a great determinant and activating force for

the cause and operation of one’s behavior .
 Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory of Motivation

• Unconscious remains hidden and usually inaccessible, consists

of one’s unfulfilled desires, wishes, ideas, and feelings: powerful
unseen forces.
 Arousal theory of Motivation
• Arousal : Physiological state of alertness & anticipation which
prepares the body for action. Dictionary meaning is “to stir up;
excite”

• Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the goal

is to maintain or increase excitement (Berlyne, 1967, Brehm and
self, 1989)

• Each of us tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and

activity.
 Arousal theory of Motivation
• According to drive-reduction model, if our stimulation and activity
levels become too high, we try to reduce them.

• In contrast to the drive-reduction model, the arousal model

suggests that if the levels of stimulation and activity are too low,
we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation

• People take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels

of arouse.
 Arousal theory of Motivation
• Based on seeking optimum activation

• It suggests that what human beings seek is not minimal levels of

arousal, but rather optimal arousal - the level that is best suited
to our personal characteristics and to whatever activity we are
currently performing.

• For example, - during knitting, whittling etc a low level of arousal

will be optimal and preferred while during a sports event, a much
higher one will be best.
 Incentive theory of Motivation
• This theory is based on behaviorists learning theories by
Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson and BF Skinner (1977).

• According to this theory motivation stems the desire to obtain

valued external goals or incentives.

• People are motivated to do things because of external rewards.

• Also named as “pull theory of motivation” : the environmental

stimuli may motivate behavior by “pulling” people towards them.
 Cognitive/goal oriented theory of Motivation
• Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is
product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals (Wigfield
& Eccles, 2000).

• For example: the degree to which people are motivated to study

for a test is based on their expectation of how well studying will
pay off in terms of good grade.

• Human behavior is purposeful and has a certain end of goal in

view.
 Cognitive/goal oriented theory of Motivation
• Individual who wants to achieve a goal is helped by his cognitive
abilities to develop a desirable drive or motive.

• Distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

• Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our

own enjoyment.

• Extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for external

reward
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory of Motivation

Abraham Maslow’s (1943)

Basic assumptions:
Every individual has 5 needs as levels of lower and
higher-order needs.

– Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs.

– Satisfaction of one need leads an individual to try for

satisfaction of other needs.
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory of Motivation

• The basis of Maslow's theory is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied
needs, and that certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can
be satisfied.

• According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, safety,

love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He
called these needs "deficiency needs."

• As long as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards

growth, toward self-actualization.

• Satisfying needs is healthy, while preventing gratification makes us sick or act

evilly.
 Self study on Nursing
implications of Motives
FRUSTRATION
 INTRODUCTION

• Every action arises in response to a need.

• So it is always directed towards a goal

• The blocking of activity directed towards a goal results

in frustration.
 INTRODUCTION
• Repeated failure in attaining the goal further aggravates the situation
leading to frustration that may end in the person’s maladjustment,
abnormality and mental illness.

• It is the typical fight going on between one's need and motives .

 MEANING AND DEFINITION
• Man is ambitious in nature.

• We have many aspirations and desires to be fulfilled, and we plan and

strive hard for its realization.

• We may sometime end with repeated failures.

• According to GOOD “Frustration means emotional tension resulting from

the blocking of a desire or need.

• According to Coleman “Frustration results when our motives are thwarted

either by some obstacle that blocks or impedes our progress towards a
desired goal or by the absence of an appropriate goal.
• There are two kinds of frustration. One is external and one
is personal.

• External frustration is caused by conditions outside of

oneself.

• Personal frustration is caused by conditions within oneself.

 Characteristics of Frustration
• An emotional state which is always unpleasent. It
creates tension or stress which varies from simple
annoyance to heated anger. The tension aroused
by it affects the vital balance.

• Frustration is a stage or condition in which failure

dominates the attempts.
 Characteristics of Frustration
• One experiences a major obstacle in the
satisfaction of one’s basic needs

• The significance of the goal and strength of the

blockade increases the degree of frustration

• The cause of frustration lies both in the individual

himself and his environment
 Factors cause frustration

A. EXTERNAL FACTORS.
• Physical Factors: Natural Calamities such as floods, tsunami,
earthquakes, fire accidents etc. Obstacle such as traffic jams, crowded
lines at the supermarket, droughts that destroy a farmer crops, noise
that prevents concentration, floods that delay us in our travel. These
can disturb human life.

• Social and societal factors: The rules and regulations of the Parents,
society, locality, culture and belief may control the desire and motive of
people. Restrictions imposed by other people laws, customs, norms of
society. Eg. Inter-caste or religious marriages, certain
 Factors cause frustration
B. INTERNAL FACTORS.
• Physical abnormality or defects: Too big or too small stature, very heavy
or thin body, ugly face, dark complexion, bodily defects like squint eye,
blindness, deaf, dumb etc. cause frustration.
• Conflicting desires or aims: frustration by obstructing mutual aims and
goals. Eg. A person may be interested in marrying a girl whom he loves
but he wishes to go abroad by marrying another girl.
• Individual’s morality and high ideals: An individual’s moral standards code
of ethics and high ideals may become a source of frustration. He is always
caught between Superego and Id. Eg. A person may be afraid to make girl
friends,
 Factors cause frustration
B. INTERNAL FACTORS.
• Level of aspiration too high: one may aspire very high in spite of one’s in
capabilities or human limitations. Eg. A person dream to become the
captain of a cricket team but does not even know the basics of the game.

• Lack of persistence and sincerity in efforts: frustration may be caused due

to weakness in putting continuous persistent efforts with courage
enthusiasm and will power at one’s command. Eg. Reading a book without
interest and complaining that book is not understandable. He also
complains of inability of grasping power.
 Reactions to frustration
 SIMPLE
• Increasing trials and improving efforts: During frustration some people go
into introspection and try to overcome obstacles either by increased efforts
or improvement of behaviour.

• Adopting Compromising means: repeated failure force people to change

the direction efforts. If no medicine nursing would do.

• Withdrawal : the individual learns to move away from the situation that
causes him frustration. Behaviours such as asking for a transfer or quitting
a job. Refuse to marry in case of sexual incompetency.

• Fixation : An employee blames others and

 Reactions to frustration
 SIMPLE
• Regression: Behaving in an immature and childish manner and may self-
pity (to feel sorry for oneself).

• Physical Disorder: Physical ailments such as fever, upset stomach,

vomiting, etc.

• Apathy: Becoming irresponsive and disinterested in the job and his co-
workers.

• Submissiveness: Here the individual surrenders himself and accepts his

defeat. A child become submissive in a thing after repeated failure.
 Reactions to frustration
 VIOLENT

External aggression: This aggression may be directed towards either the

person or persons who caused the frustration or toward the substitutes. An
employee may quarrel with his boss for not getting promotion or rebuke his
wife and children. Showing the enmity in one or other manner.

Internal Aggression: an aggression turned towards self. Instead of releasing

the tensions on others it is self directed. Blaming self. Eventually the person
becomes neurotic or tries to find escape through suicide.
 Conflict
• This term is commonly used.

• There may be conflicts between two cultures, religions, or organizations.

• Conflict means a painful emotional state which results from a tensions

between opposed and contradictory wishes. (Douglas)

• conflict occurs when one has to choose between equally desirable or

equally undesirable goals.

• One of the confusing things about frustration and conflict is that each may
be the consequence of the other. 
 Types of Conflict
• FOUR TYPES OF CONFLICT

1. Approach – approach

2. Avoidance – avoidance

3. Approach – avoidance

4. Double/multiple approach
 Types of Conflict
APPROACH - APPROACH
• This type of conflict occurs when the individual has two desirable but
mutually exclusive goals.

• A conflict between two desired gratifications as when a youth has to

choose between two attractive and practicable careers, may lead to some
vacillation but rarely to great distress.

• Eg. Read an interesting novel: go for games

 Types of Conflict
AVOIDANCE - AVOIDANCE
• This type of conflict occurs when there are two undesirable situations but
cannot avoid one without encountering the other.

• Conflict whereby one must choose between two more or less equally
undesirable or unattractive goals.

• Eg. a situation where you have to decide between doing unwanted

homework (avoidance) or doing unwanted house chores (avoidance).

• Not interested to study: not interested to disappoint he parents by failing in

examination.
 Types of Conflict
APPROACH - AVOIDANCE
• The conflict occurs when a person is both attracted and repelled by the
same object , person or situation. This is difficult to resolve. The person is
attracted to a goal that has both positive and negative values.

• It occurs when there is one goal or event that has both positive and
negative effects or characteristics that make the goal appealing and
unappealing simultaneously.

• Eg. To marry or not to marry, to purchase something or not. It is severe

and give rise to anxieties and complexes.
 Types of Conflict
DOUBLE/MULTIPLE APPROACH

• In real life, the individual frequently is faced with having to choose between
two (or more) goals, each of which has both attracting and repelling
aspects.
• Since the tendency is to either approach or avoid each of the goals, this
pattern is called double approach-avoidance.

• Eg. Choosing a house in the country means fresh air, room to live, peace
and quiet. It also means many hours of commuting to work in heavy traffic
and long distances from city amenities and cultural events.
 Sources of conflict
We understand conflict as creation of dissatisfaction felt by an individual due to
non- fulfillment of two contradictory motive. We may categorize these as the
following;

• Different motives of life stages. (four categories)

I. Home environment.
II. School environment.
III. Occupational environment.
IV. Social and cultural environment.
 Conflict resolution

• Accept each desire as it arrives without judgment or resistance.

• Remove the barriers for making your own choices out of the conflicting desires. It may
heightened emotional blockade and for this we cab adopt mediation, play therapy etc.

• In a cool mind think the goals of your life, the purpose of the desire and choose the
better one in tune with inner voice and socially acceptable as well as morally sound.

• Follow the opted desire with full zeal and enthusiasm and do it with pleasure and live
in it.

• Postponing the desires should be always temporary.

• Believe in the concept of balanced compromise.

EMOTION
 Introduction
• They are Intense feelings that are directed at someone
or something

• Emotions are private experiences.

• We infer observable behavior associated with emotion.

 Introduction
• “emotion” derived from the Latin word “emovere”,
means “to stir up” or “to excite”

• Subjective feeling
 Introduction

• Feelings are simple experiences of the affective

type, pleasant or unpleasant.

• Emotions are more complex, affective experiences

in which the whole individual is stirred up.
 Introduction

• Emotions are some sort of feelings or affective

experiences which are characterized by some
physiological changes that generally lead them to
perform some or the other types of behavior acts.
 Definition

• Emotion is a “moved” or “stirred-up” state of an

organism. It is a stirred up state of feeling that is the
way it appears to the individual himself. It is a
disturbed muscular and glandular activity that is the
way it appears to an external observer.
(Woodworth-1945)
 Definition

• Emotion is an affective experience that

accompanies generalized inner adjustment and
mental and physiological stirred up states in the
individual and that shows itself in his overt behavior.
(Crow and Crow – 1973)
 Components of emotion
Dennis Coon described four components of an
emotion:
1. Subjective feeling
2. Emotional expression
3. Physiological changes
4. Conscious experience
 Components of emotion
Subjective feeling:
• What you believe you are feeling
• Conscious and intellectual perception of a situation
 Components of emotion
Emotional expression or Expressive Behavior:
• Three ways in which an emotion can be expressed.
a. Facial
b. Vocal
c. Bodily movements/gestures
 Components of emotion
Physiological changes:
• Caused mainly by the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine
gland system.

• Two subdivision of ANS – Sympathetic & Parasympathetic

• Sympathetic division : prepares body for emergency action during

aroused state. It causes discharge of hormones
(epinephrine/adrenaline & norepinephrine/noradrenaline)
 Components of emotion
Physiological changes:
Adrenaline causes-
• Increased BP and heart rate
• Changes is RR
• Dilation of pupils
• Sweating and decreased saliva secretion
• Blood sugar increase
• Decreased GI mobility
• Erect hair on the skin
• Muscular tension and tremors
 Components of emotion
Physiological changes:
• At the end of intense emotion period, physiological
response is taken over by parasympathetic branch,
which slows down entire metabolism of body to
bring into balance.
 Components of emotion
Physiological changes:
• Changes produced by parasympathetic-
 Reduced HR & BP
 Diverts blood to the internal organs and GI tract
 Regulates salt and water level of the body
 Helps to build up and conserve body’s energy
 Components of emotion
Conscious experience:

• Emotion is also an experience

• Conscious feeling
 Relationship between Motivation & Emotion
• Emotions can activate and direct behavior in the same way as
biological or psychological motives.

• Anger, fear, joy and grief are emotions. Hunger, thirst and
fatigue are states of the individual that serve as motives.

• Emotions- aroused by external stimuli and that emotional

expression is directed towards the stimuli in the environment
that arouses it.
 Relationship between Motivation & Emotion

• Motives-aroused by internal stimuli and are naturally directed

towards certain objects in the environment.

• Most emotions act as motivators to some degree.

• Nearly 85% or more of human behavior is motivated by

emotions.
 Characteristics of Emotions

• Emotions are aroused and stirred up bodily state

• Energizing
• Emotions motivate to perform activities
• Aroused by external factors
• Subjective experience
• Pleasant/Unpleasant
• Impact on cognitive function
• Acts as a motive
 Functions of Emotions

• Preparing for action

• Shaping future behavior

• Helping in interact more effectively with others

 Classification of Emotions and Emotional States

1. Primary and Mixed emotions:

• Primary emotions- most basic emotions such as fear, joy, anger,

surprise etc. Considered as simple emotions.
• Mixed emotions- combine a number of primary emotions. Considered
as complex. Example – love, aggression, disappointment etc.
Classification of Emotions and Emotional States

2. Pleasant (Positive) & Unpleasant (Negative) emotions:

• Pleasant emotions- The emotions such as love and joy are helpful
and essential to the normal development.
• Unpleasant emotions- The emotions such as fear, anger, sadness
are harmful to the well-being and development of an individual.
• Emotions are the form of emotional reactions, whether
positive or negative, which are responsible for providing
directions to the human behavior.

• Anger, fear & love are primitive responses.

• Fear is produced by a threatening situation with which an
individual is unable to cope up.

• Fear reactions are accompanied with the instinct of escape or

feeling of getting rid of the threatening situations.

• These are not inherited but are learned in consequences of the

experience.

• In spite of their negative nature , it is not bad to be fearful in

situations where it helps either in the survival or wellbeing of the
individual or the society.
• Anger responses may be said to be an adjective reaction against
frustration.

• Its expression may take the oral as well as motor form.

• Oral form- Verbal exchange of words

• Motor form- Violent & aggressive behavior

• In spite of its inclusion in the category of negative emotions, it is

good to be angry to some extent as it helps in motivating our
behaviors to remove the barrier & overcome the difficulties.
• Love is defined as an emotion in which there is a deep sense of
acceptance or commitment to some person, object or an activity.

• Caring attachment & intimacy characteristics

• Positive emotion necessary for our self-development & healthy

adjustment.
• Sadness occurs when there is a loss of an important pleasure
producing object, person or position.

• Accompanied by negative mood, crying behavior and lack of activity.

• Guilt is an emotion, which arises when our normal personal standard

or values are violated.

• It leads to embarrassment and shame.

• Pleasure or joy is experienced when our motives are satisfied.

 Unconscious emotional motivations

• Possible to be motivated by emotions and not be aware of it.

• Anger & jealousy are often hidden because they are unacceptable to
other people.

• Overt behavior can show these hidden unconscious emotions.

• Might bring same state of bodily arousal as in conscious emotions.

 Physiological Changes during Emotions Changes

External changes:
• The voice changes according to the type of emotion. Experiments have
proved that emotions can be identified on the basis of voice.

• Facial expressions change. We can identify emotion experienced by a

person by looking at his face.

• There will be changes in the body language like stiffness of muscles,

twisting of fingers, movements of hands and legs.

• Sweating, Wrinkles on forehead, Redness of eyes, Erection of hairs on the

skin, etc.
 Physiological Changes during Emotions Changes

 Internal changes:
• Sympathetic division prepares the body for facing emergency either by fight
or by flight, i.e. fights if possible, otherwise escapes from the situation.

• It stimulates the adrenal glands and causes the excess release of

adrenaline and nor-adrenaline.

• Adrenaline gets circulated all over the body and stimulates vital organs
leading to following internal changes.
 Increase in heart rate thereby increase in BP, Increase in rate of
respiration, Increase in blood sugar level.
 Decrease in functioning of GI tract-that is why we do not experience the
feeling of hunger during emotional states.
 Theories of Emotions:
Evolutionary Theory

• Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because they were adaptive and
allowed humans and animals to survive and reproduce.

• Feelings of love and affection lead people to seek mates and reproduce. Feelings of
fear compel people to either fight or flee the source of danger.

• It states that our emotions exist because they serve an adaptive role. Emotions
motivate people to respond quickly to stimuli in the environment, which helps improve
the chances of success and survival.

• If you encounter hissing, spitting, and clawing animal, chances are you will quickly
realize that the animal is frightened or defensive and leave it alone
 Theories of Emotions:
James-Lange Theory

• In the late 19th century, William James (1842-1910), formulated

• This theory suggests that when you see an external stimulus that leads to a
physiological reaction.

• Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical
reactions.

• For example, suppose you are walking in the woods and you see a grizzly bear.
You begin to tremble, and your heart begins to race. • According to this theory of
emotion, you are not trembling because you are frightened. Instead, you feel
frightened because you are trembling.
 James-Lange theory

• Perception of an environment situation that might result in

emotion

• Reaction to the situation with specific patterns of bodily

activity

• Feedback to brain from bodily responses produces an

experience of emotion
 Theories of Emotions:
Cannon-Bard Theory

• According to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, we feel emotions and

experience physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling, and muscle
tension simultaneously.

• More specifically, it is suggested that emotions result when the thalamus sends a
message to the brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological
reaction. At the same time, the brain also receives signals triggering the emotional
experience.

• Cannon and Bard’s theory suggests that the physical and psychological
experience of emotion happen at the same time and that one does not cause the
other.
 Cannon-Bard Theory

Perception of an
emotion producing
stimuli

Stimulus produced by
thalamus which
simultaneously sends
messages to the cortex
and other parts of body

Messages from
Messages to cortex
thalamus activate
produce experience of
visceral and skeletal
emotion
responses
 Theories of Emotions:
Schachter-Singer Theory

• Also known as the two-factor theory of emotion.

• This theory suggests that the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must
identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion. A stimulus leads
to a physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted and labelled which results in an
emotion.

• Schachter and Singer’s theory draws on both the James- Lange theory and the Cannon-
Bard theory of emotion.

• it proposes that people do infer emotions based on physiological responses.

• The critical factor is the situation and the cognitive interpretation that people use to label that
emotion.
 Theories of Emotions:

• Like the Cannon-Bard theory, the Schachter-Singer theory also suggests

that similar physiological responses can produce varying emotions.

• For example, if you experience a racing heart and sweating palms during an
important math exam, you will probably identify the emotion as anxiety. If you
experience the same physical responses on a date with your significant
other, you might interpret those responses as love, affection, or arousal.
 Theories of Emotions:

Activation Theory

• Emotions represents a state of heightened arousal rather than a

qualitatively unique type of psychological, physiological or biological process.

• Arousal is considered to lie on a wide continuum ranging from a very low

level to extreme agitation.

• According to Lindsley emotions provoking stimuli activate the reticular

activating system in brain stem which send impulses to cortex as well as
musculature an hence emotion are created or expressed.
 Emotional responses to illness

• People react differently to illness.

• Individual’s emotional reactions depend on the nature of the

illness, the patient’s attitude towards it, the reaction of
others to it, patient’s perception of illness, visibility of
symptoms, availability of support system, patient’s coping
skill
 Emotional responses to illness
• How the emotions are expressed or experienced depends upon
person's basic personality, perception, situation & also extent of
support.

• By knowing the emotional responses to illness, nurse can anticipate

different reactions & can encourage the client & family to express the
feelings in a constructive way.
 Emotional responses to illness

• Severe illness, particularly one that is life threatening can lead to

more extensive emotional reactions such as anxiety, shock, fear,
anger, denial and depression, Over dependence & feeling of
helplessness, Hope.
 Emotional responses to illness
FEAR

• Fear is an emotional response characterized by expectation of

harm or unpleasantness.

• Normally, the body reacts by attempting to avoid or withdraw from

threat.

• Patient with fear expresses it freely but, few explanations from the
nurse can alleviate the fear readily, on the other hand some are
reluctant to express fears.
 Emotional responses to illness
OVER DEPENDENCE

• During the period of illness, the dependence & feelings of helplessness

usually increase up to the point they may be harmful for the client.

• Nurse can observe the over dependency in patient & can assist the client to
decrease it in a manner compatible with patient’s capabilities.
 Emotional responses to illness
ANXIETY

• Illness results in anxiety, & in anxious patients, insight is lacking. Anxiety

leads to insomnia, diarrhoea, shift in Bp, fatigue & inadequate coping with
disease condition.

• The nurse should have proper knowledge about anxiety level of the clients
& should know the interventions to reduce anxiety.
 Emotional responses to illness
HOPE

• Mostly people hope for the best & expect a long & healthy life. Physical &
emotional equilibrium gets disturbed & even death may occur if a person
gives up the will to live.

• Nurse can reinforce the hope & encourage the client for a continuous
struggle.
 Emotional responses to illness
ANGER & HOSTILITY

• Anger is an emotion characteristically associated with frustrations &

struggling with an unpleasant situation.
• It is commonly seen when the goal is blocked or cannot be achieved, or the
respect for self has lowered.
• Hostility is an unfriendliness that is associated with a desire for aggression.
Sarcasm, abusive remarks are the expression of hostility.
 • The over demanding, unreasonable aggressive & argumentative patients
may express their hostility through their behaviour.
 Emotional responses to illness
DENIAL

• mechanism by which the patient or family avoids emotional conflict and

anxiety by refusing to acknowledge difficult facts
 Emotional responses to illness
DEPRESSION

An emotional state characterized by a dejected mood. Depression occurs

due to absence of cure, loss of personal control.
 Emotional responses to illness
SHOCK

When patient or families are informed of a severe or life threatening illness,

shock responses may occur.
 Emotional responses to illness

WORRY

A mild form of anxiety characterized by preoccupation of a problem.

Nurse should have complete knowledge about all
these emotions, so that she can help the client to
adjust / adapt to the situation
 Emotional Adjustment

• Emotions are described as the prime movers of behaviour.

• Emotional adjustment is an important task because, adjustment during

emotions lead to a normal behaviour, whereas maladjustment leads to
abnormal behaviour.
 Emotional Adjustment

• These stirred up states are store houses of energy, which may work
for both intense vigour and efficiency and strong disruption of mental life.

• There are many instances where even highly intelligent people fail to
manage their emotions and some average intelligent persons manage
their emotions effectively and harmoniously. It is called ’emotional
intelligence’.
 Emotional Adjustment

• Human being is considered as a rational being. But in the grip of

emotions people behave like immature. Some people may breakdown
completely, cannot take proper decisions, and many people even
collapse in severe emotional arousal, because of serious changes in
vital systems such as heart, lungs, brain, etc.
 Emotional Adjustment

• Emotions may hamper the studies of students and occupations of

people. In some people emotions may lead to crimes, because people
lose reasoning power and their ability to control behaviour is hampered.
Hence, emotional control and management is very essential for an
adjusted life.
 Nursing interventions for emotional reactions

• Spend time with patients

• Handling the emotions-
a. Verbalization of distress
b. Show acceptance of behavior
c. Try to determine the cause
d. Recognize denial & deal with it
e. Show respect for patient’s feelings
 Nursing interventions for emotional reactions

• Orientation of patient to health care facility

• Identification of learning needs of patients
• Provide diversional activities
• Taking care of insomnia, food, and fluid intake, elimination pattern
• Maintain cheerfulness and humor
• Seek help to mental health professionals
STRESS
 Concept of stress

• Universal phenomenon

• Can have both positive & negative effects

• Produced by a change in the environment that is perceived

as a challenge, threat, or danger.

• Affects the whole person in all the human dimensions.

Types of stress
 Sources of stress

• Environmental stressors
• Physiological stressors
• Social stressors
• Thoughts
 Factors which induce stress

• Any kind of change

• Individual personalities (low self-esteem, feeling over

responsible, chronic guilt, fear of failure etc.)

• Interpersonal issues (lack of adequate support within a

relationship, lack of healthy communication, sense of
competitiveness, over dependency etc.)

• System issues(family, job, school, club, organization)

 MODELS OF STRESS

• Stimulus based
• Response based
• Transaction based
 Response based model
• Selyes stress response is characterized by a chain
or pattern of physiologic events called the General
Adaptation Syndrome.