GOVERNMENT

AND POLITICS
OF SOUTHEAST
ASIA
WHERE IS THE LOCATION
OF SOUTHEAST ASIA?
Southeast Asia is
bordered to the north by
East Asia, to the west by
South Asia and the Bay
of Bengal, to the east by
Oceania and the Pacific
Ocean, and to the south
by Australia and the
Indian Ocean.

Map of Southeast Asia

SOUTHEAST ASIAN
COUNTRIES
Southeast Asia consists of
eleven (11) states:
1. Brunei
2. Cambodia
3. Indonesia
4. Laos
5. Malaysia
6. Myanmar
7. Philippines
8. Singapore
9. Thailand
10. Timor Leste
11. Vietnam
THE FORM, NATURE, AND
STRUCTURE OF SEA
COUNTRIES
Countries Form Nature & Structure
Brunei The form of government of The politics of Brunei take place in a framework
Brunei is an absolute of an absolute monarchy, where by the Sultan
constitutional monarchy; Brunei of Brunei is both head of state and head of
is a unitary and Islamic state. government (Prime Minister of Brunei).
Executive power is exercised by the
government.

Cambodia The form of government of
Cambodia is a parliamentary
system-type constitutional
elective monarchy; Cambodia
is a unitary and one-party state.
The politics of Cambodia are defined within the
framework of a constitutional monarchy, in
which the King serves as the head of state, and
the prime minister is the head of government.

Indonesia The form of government of
Indonesia is a presidential
system democracy; Indonesia
is a constitutional republic
state.
The politics of Indonesia take place in the
framework of a presidential representative
democratic republic whereby the President of
Indonesia is both head of state and head of
government and of a multi-party system.
Laos The form of government of Laos
is republic unitary state; Laos is
a socialist and communist state.
Malaysia The form of government of
Malaysia is a parliamentary
system-type constitutional
elective monarchy; Malaysia is a
democratic state.
Myanmar The form of government of
Myanmar is a unitary
parliamentary system; Myanmar
is a constitutional parliamentary
republic.
Philippines The form of government of the
Philippines is a unitary state
presidential, representative, and
democratic republic.
The politics of the Lao People's Democratic
Republic (commonly known as Laos) takes place
in the framework of a one-party socialist republic.
The only legal political party is the Lao People's
Revolutionary Party (LPRP).
Politics of Malaysia takes place in the framework
of a federal representative democratic
constitutional monarchy, in which the Yang di-
Pertuan Agong is head of state and the Prime
Minister of Malaysia is the head of government.
Executive power is exercised by the federal
government and the 13 state governments
Myanmar (also known as Burma) is a unitary
parliamentary republic under its constitution of
2008. The Economist Intelligence Unit rated
Myanmar an "authoritarian regime" in 2018.
The politics of the Philippines take place in an
organized framework of a presidential,
representative, and democratic republic whereby
the president is both the head of state and the
head of government within a pluriform multi-party
system.
Singapore The form of government of
Singapore is a unitary
parliamentary constitutional
republic.
Thailand The form of government of
Thailand is a unitary
parliamentary state,
constitutional monarchy under
military junta and dictatorship.
Timor Leste The form of government of
Timor Leste is a unitary
parliamentary semi-presidential
state; Timor Leste is a
democratic republic.
Vietnam The form of government of
Vietnam is a unitary socialist
communist one-party state.
The politics of Singapore takes the form of a
parliamentary representative democratic
republic whereby the President of Singapore is
the head of state, the Prime Minister of
Singapore is the head of government, and of a
multi-party system.
The politics of Thailand takes the form of a
unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
whereby the Monarch is the head of the state,
and the Prime Minister is the head of the
government.
Politics of East Timor takes place in a framework
of a unitary semi-presidential representative
democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister
of East Timor is the head of government and the
President of East Timor exercises the functions
of head of state.
The politics of Vietnam are defined by a single-
party socialist republic framework, where the
General Secretary of the Communist Party of
Vietnam is the Party leader and head of the
Politburo, holding the highest position in the
one-party system..
SINGAPORE (THE REPUBLIC OF
SINGAPORE)

Official Name: Republik Singapura (MAY); 新加坡共和国 (ZH); சிங்கப்பூர் குடியரசு (TAM); Republic
of Singapore (ENG)
Capital: Singapore
Official Language/s: English, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil
Form of Government: Unitary Dominant-party Parliamentary Republic
Population: 5,791,901 (2018) [113th]
GDP (PPP): $589.187 billion (2019 est.); $103,717 per capita (2019 est.)
GDP (Nominal): $372.807 billion (2018 est.); $65,627 per capita (2019 est.)
Currency: Singapore Dollar (SGD)
BACKGROUND
Brief History
― 1819
• Arrival of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles
• Singapore Local Residents signed an agreement stating that the British
would be allowed to establish a trading post, in return for protection
• Deep natural harbor and no tariffs on goods landed in attracted traders:
Malays, Bugis, Chinese, Indians, Arabs, and others.

― 1824
• British acquired full sovereignty over the island
• Making the land a British colony
• The British started a meticulous city-planning which included a plan to
separate the ethnic communities
— the foundation of ethnic areas like Chinatown
Brief History

From the start, Singapore was intended to be a British center for trade in Asia. It served
as a free port serving both Asian and Western private enterprises. This was done without
monopolies, duties or other trade restrictions. Such unrestricted trade was unknown at that
time, and it firmly established the land as an important trading post.
― During WWII
• The imperial Japanese army invaded the land, culminating in the Battle of
Singapore

― 1942
• The British surrendered

― 1945
• The British repossessed it after the surrender of Japan

― 1955
• The first general election
• David Marshall won but resigned after the British rejected his demand for complete
self-rule
Brief History
― 1959
• Gained internal self-government
• There are several questions which had to be resolved if Singapore was to
survive as an independent city state
• The first Prime Minister: Lee Kuan Yew
—saw little chance of survival if it was to stand alone as an independent nation
― 1963
• Singapore joined the Federation of Malaysia

― 1965
• Eviction from the Federation
• Singapore found itself on its own Republic of Singapore
— had British army bases in the country, providing a form of safety and also a stable
income
Brief History
― 1967
• Co-founded ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)
• The issue of the first Singapore Dollar

― 1968
• Britain announces its intention to withdraw its armed forces

― 1971
• The last British military forces withdraw

 Today, the Port of Singapore is the world’s busiest by tonnage handled, and is still the
trans-shipment point for many Malaysian imports and exports.
 It has the third largest oil-refining center, oil being transported by ship.
 Since the 1960s, it has continued to experience economic growth through trade,
resulting from its location.
 The city is a communications and financial service center.
Brief History
 The development of good infrastructure, roads, electricity, clean water, and
industrial facilities has caused a multiplier effect.
 Tourists visit it is a chance to experience a part of Asia that is safe and clean,
markets itself as a “shoppers paradise”.

Government
― Type: Unitary Parliamentary Constitutional Republic
― Legal system: based on English common law
― Organs:
• Executive
• Legislature
• Judiciary

― Legislative
• Singapore parliament is unicameral
Government
• 87 members are voted in a regular General Elections (MPs) in addition:
— There are up to nine (9) nominated members (NMPs) – appointed by the
president
— And up to nine (9) Non-Constituency Members of Parliament (NCMPs) –
traditionally, members of parties that came closest to winning seats may be
appointed
• 5-year term
• The leader of the political party that secures the majority of seats in Parliament
will be asked by the President to become the Prime Minister
• Prime Minister
— Head of Government
— Selects his Ministers from elected MPs to form the Cabinet
― Executive
• President
― Head of State
― Elected by the people
― 6-year term with no term limits
― Appoints Cabinet, responsible to Parliament
― Executive
• Cabinet
— Comprises the Prime Minister and the ministers in charge of the ministries in charge
of the ministries of:
 Community Development
 Defense
 Environment and Water Resources
 Foreign Affairs
 Home Affairs
 Communications and the Arts
 Manpower
 Trade and Industry
 Youth and Sports
 Education
 Finance
 Health
 Information
 Law
 National Development
 Transport
― Judiciary
• Vested in Supreme Court and State Courts
• Chief Justice is the head
• Chief Justice, Judges of Appeal, Judges and Judicial Commissioners are appointed by
the President on the advice of the Prime Minister
 ― Judiciary
• Within this branch, the Registrar of the Supreme Court supervises the
Legal Service Officers in the Supreme Court while the Presiding Judge of
the State Courts leads the Legal Service Officers in the State Courts. Both
the Registrar and the Presiding Judge of the State Courts are accountable
to the Chief Justice for their management of these Legal Service Officers.
• The Supreme Court
— Made up of
→ The Court of Appeal – the final appellate court and the highest
court of the land. It hears civil and criminal appeals from the
High Court
→ The High Court – hears appeals form the decisions of District
Courts and Magistrates’ Courts in civil and criminal. It has
general supervisory and revisionary jurisdiction over all
subordinate courts in any civil or criminal matter
• The State Courts
— Comprises the District Courts, Magistrates’ Courts, the Coroners’
Courts, the Juvenile Courts, and the Small Claims Tribunals. Within
this legal framework, various specialist courts have been designated
to deal with the wide variety of cases

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/MarrieAngelaSantiago/singapore-51480761
LAOS (LA0 PEOPLE’S
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC)

Official Name: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ (LAO); Saþalanalat Paxaþipatai Paxaxōn

Lao (Romanisation); République démocratique populaire lao (FR); Lao People’s Democratic
Republic (ENG)
Capital: Vientiane
Official Language/s: Lao, Hmong, Khmu, French
Form of Government: Unitary Marxist-Leninist One-party Socialist Republic
Population: 7,061,507 (2019) [103rd]
GDP (PPP): $58.329 billion (2019 est.); $8,450 per capita (2019 est.)
GDP (Nominal): $20.153 billion (2019 est.); $2.670 per capita (2019 est.)
Currency: Kip (LAK)
BACKGROUND
Brief History
Ancient Laos
The earliest inhabitants of Laos were hunter-gatherers. Later they were farmers
growing rice and pulses. The first farmers used stone tools, but from about 2,000 BC
bronze was used in Laos and from about 500 BC iron.
― 9th to the 13th century
• the Khmers from Cambodia ruled much of what is now Laos

― 14th century
• the ancestors of today’s Laotians founded a kingdom called Lan Xang.
The first king was the ambitious Chao Fa Ngum, who was succeeded by
his son Phaya Samsenthai in 1373 and ruled until 1421.

― 16th century
• Lan Xang was threatened by Burma but it managed to retain its
independence
Brief History
― Early 18th century
• Lan Xang split into 3 regions centered on Luang Prang in the north, Vientiane in
the middle, and Champasak in the south.

― 1779
• Siamese forces occupied Vientiane
• Three (3) Laotian states were dominated afterwards by Siam (Thailand

― 1867-68
• A Frenchman called Francis Garnier traveled through Laos. However the
French left Laos alone for two decades. Then in the late 1880s and early 1890s
French influence in the area grew. Finally in 1893 the Siamese formally
surrendered all territory east of the River Mekong to the French.

― 1941
• The French fought a war with the Thais for Laotian territory
• The Japanese forced an armistice and parts of Laos was given to Thailand
Brief History
― 1946
• The French invaded Laos and by May 1946 they were in control of the country
again

― 1950
• Laos in the 1950s was a divided country
• Most was ruled by Royalist governments supported by the USA while parts were
ruled by the Pro-Communist Paphet Lao assisted by their allies the Viet Minh.

― 1953
• The French were losing control of Southeast Asia and
• The French withdrew from Laos, which became an independent, constitutional
monarchy

― 1964-1973
• The USA bombed Paphet Lao territory but failed to defeat them
Brief History
― 1975
• South Vietnam and Cambodia fell to the Communists
• Royalists fled from Laos allowing the Paphet Lao to take over
• On December 2, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic was founded

― 1988
• The government introduced market reforms

― 1997
• Laos joined ASEAN

― 2013
• Laos joined WTO (World Trade Organization)
Government
― Type: One-Party Socialist Republic
― Legal system: based on French typical civil law-based legal system
― Organs:
• Executive
• Legislature
• Judiciary

― Legislative
• The National Assembly is unicameral parliament of Laos
• Laos is a one-party state with the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (LPRP) as the
sole legal party
• 149 members (144 LPRP, 5 Independents) are elected from 18 multi-member
constituencies with between three (3) and fourteen (14) seats using the past-
the-post system
— Candidates had to gain the support of a local authority or a mass organization to
run for office, and election committees approve candidacies
• 5-year term
― Legislative
• Government policies are determined by the party through the all-powerful nine-member
Politburo and the 49-member Central Committee
• Important government decisions are vetted by the Council of Ministers

― Executive
• President
― De jure Head of State
― Also the LPRP general secretary making him the de facto leader of Laos
― Elected by the National Assembly
― 5-year term with no term limits
― Appoints Cabinet, responsible to Parliament
― The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the president
with the approval of the National Assembly for a five-year term.

• The Prime Minister

― Head of the government
― There are four (4) deputy Prime Ministers

• Cabinet
― Comprises of 28-memners
― Executive
• Cabinet
 Agriculture and Forestry
 Education and Sports
 Energy and Mines
 Finance
 Foreign Affairs
 Home Affairs (Interior)
 Industry and Commerce
 Information, Culture, and Tourism
 Justice
 Labour and Social Welfare
 Minister of Post, Telecom and Communications
 National Defense
 Natural Resources and Environment
 Planning and Investment
 Ministry of Health
 Public Security
 Public Works and Transport
 Science and Technology
― Judiciary
• Vested in the People’s Supreme Court
― Judiciary
• The constitution empowers the National Assembly to elect or remove the
president of the People’s Supreme Court and the public prosecutor general on
the recommendation of its Standing Committee
• The President of the People’s Supreme Court is elected by the National
Assembly on the recommendation of the National Assembly Standing
Committee
• The Standing Committee of the National Assembly appoints or remove judges
(previously elected) of the provincial, municipal, and district levels
• For the legal profession, there are 188 lawyers in Laos who are members of the
Laos Bar Association.
• Lawyers are not allowed to promote themselves as attorneys-at-law.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Laos and http://countrystudies.us/laos/90.htm

CAMBODIA (KINGDOM
OF CAMBODIA)

Official Name: ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា (Khmer); prĕəh riəciənaacak kampuciə

(Romanisation); Royaume du Cambodge  (French); Kingdom of Cambodia(ENG)
Capital: Phnom Penh
Official Language/s: Khmer, English, French
Form of Government: Constitutional Monarchy
Population: 15,288,489 (2019) [72nd]
GDP (PPP): $76.635 billion (2019 est.); $4,645 per capita (2019 est.)
GDP (Nominal): $26.628 billion (2019 est.); $1,614 per capita (2019 est.)
Currency: Riel (KHR)
BACKGROUND
Brief History
Ancient Cambodia
Cambodia has a rich and fascinating history. The first humans in Cambodia were
Stone Age hunters and gatherers. However farming was introduced into Cambodia about
2,300 BC. The first farmers in Cambodia used stone tools but from about 1,500 BC the
Cambodians used tools and weapons made from bronze. By about 500 BC they had
learned to use iron.
― 12th century
• The most famous temple Angkor Wat was built

― 1117
• Chams from Champa (on the coast of Vietnam) invaded Cambodia

― 1431
• The Thais captured the Cambodian capital, Angkor. Afterwards it was abandoned
and new capital was founded at Phnom Phen
― 1594
• The Thais captured the capital the dominated the region

― Early 17th century

• Cambodians controlled parts of what is now South Vietnam. They held a port called
Prey Nokor. (Later it was renamed Saigon)

― 18th century
• Cambodia found itself squeezed between two powerful neighbors, Thailand and
Vietnam
• The Thais invaded Cambodia several times

― 1772
• The Thais destroyed Phnom Phen
Brief History
― 19th century
• King Chan (1806-1834) turned to the Vietnamese for protection from the Thais

― 1833
• The Thais were annoyed by this policy and when a rebellion occurred in south
Vietnam in 1833 they took advantage by invading Cambodia

― 1840-1841
• Resentment at Vietnamese influence led to a rebellion

― 1850s
• French missionaries arrived in Cambodia
• The Cambodian king turned to the French to protect him from both the Thais
and the Vietnamese
Brief History
― 1863
• Cambodia became a French protectorate

― 20th century
• Under French rule some economic development took place in Cambodia. Roads
and railways were built and in the 1920s a rubber industry grew up. However the
Cambodians were forced to pay heavy taxes and from the 1930s Cambodian
nationalism grew

― 1941
• Cambodia was occupied by the Japanese

― 1945
• The French took over again as the Japanese surrendered. They arrived in
October
Brief History
― 1949
• The French did allow the Cambodians to have political parties and a
constitution. By a treaty of 1949 Cambodia was made semi-independent

― 1953
• On 9 November 1953 the French finally allowed Cambodia to become fully
independent

― 1975
• The Americans bombed Cambodia to try and stop the communists.
Nevertheless they captured Phnom Penh on 17 April 1975

― 1999
• Cambodia joined ASEAN
Government
― Type: Multiparty Democracy under a Constitutional Monarchy
― Legal system: based largely on French civil system, and is statute based
― Organs:
• Executive
• Legislature
• Judiciary
― Legislative
• Cambodian government is made up of a bicameral parliament
• The official duty of the Parliament is to legislate and make laws. Bills passed by the
Parliament are given to the King who gives the proposed bills royal assent. The King
does not have veto power over bills passed by the National Assembly and thus,
cannot withhold royal assent. The National Assembly also has the power to dismiss
the Prime Minister and his government by a two-thirds vote of no confidence.
• Senate
― Upper house of the legislature
― Consist of 61 members; two of these members are appointed by the King, two
are elected by the lower house of the government, and the remaining 57 are
elected by popularity by electors from provincial and local governments
― 6-year terms
― Legislative
• National Assembly
― Lower house of the legislature
― 125 members, elected for a 5-year term by proportional representation
― Led by a President and two Vice Presidents who are selected by
Assembly members prior to each session

― Executive
• The Prime Minister
― Head of the government
― He or she is appointed by the King on the recommendation of the President
and Vice Presidents of the National Assembly. In order for a person to become
Prime Minister, he or she must first be given a vote of confidence by the
National Assembly.

• Council of Ministers
― Cambodia’s version of a Cabinet
― Judiciary
• Independent from the rest of the government, as specified by the Cambodian
Constitution
 ― Judiciary
• The highest court of judicial branch is the Supreme Council of the Magistracy
• Other, lower courts also exist
• Until 1997, Cambodia did not have a judicial branch of government despite the
nation's Constitution requiring one
• The main duties of the judiciary are to prosecute criminals, settle lawsuits, and,
most importantly, protect the freedoms and rights of Cambodian citizens
• There are currently 17 justices on the Supreme Council.

― Monarchy
• King
― Head of State and is the symbol of unity and "perpetuity" of the nation, as defined
by Cambodia's constitution
― Unlike most monarchies, Cambodia's monarchy is not necessarily hereditary and
the King is not allowed to select his own heir
― a new King is chosen by a Royal Council of the Throne, consisting of the
president of the National Assembly, the Prime Minister, the President of the
Senate, the First and Second Vice Presidents of the Senate, the Chiefs of the
orders of Mohanikay and Thammayut, and the First and Second Vice-President of
the Assembly. The Royal Council meets within a week of the King's death or
abdication and selects a new King from a pool of candidates with royal blood

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Cambodia#Legislative_branch
BRUNEI (NATION OF BRUNEI,
THE ABODE OF PEACE

Official Name: Negara Brunei Darussalam (Rumi script); ‫( نڬارا بروني دارالسالم‬Jawi script); Nation of Brunei,
the Abode of Peace (ENG)
Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
Official Language/s: Malay, English
Form of Government: Constitutional Monarchy with a Ministerial Government
Population: 442,400 (2018) [168th]
GDP (PPP): $36.854 billion (2019 est.); $83,777 per capita (2019 est.)
GDP (Nominal): $13.325 billion (2019 est.); $30,290 per capita (2019 est.)
Currency: Brunei Dollar (BND)
BACKGROUND
Brief History
― 14th to 16th century
• The Sultanate of Brunei ruled the country

― 1521
• The maritime state was visited by Spain's Magellan Expedition

― 1578
• Brunei fought against Spain the 1578 Castilian War

― 1888
• Became a British protectorate
Brief History
― 1906
• Brunei was assigned as colonial manager

― 1959
• A new constitution was written

― 1962
• a small armed rebellion against the monarchy was ended with the help of the
British

― 1984
• Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984

― 1990s and 2000s

• Economic growth during the 1990s and 2000s, with the GDP increasing 56%
from 1999 to 2008, transformed Brunei into an industrialised country
Government
― Type: Constitutional Sultanate
― Legal system: mix of English Common Law and Islamic Law
― Organs:
• Executive
• Legislature
• Judiciary
― Legislative
• The Legislative Council of Brunei is a national unicameral legislature of Brunei
• Since 1959, the Council has played significant roles towards Brunei; not only to
consider and approve budgets and revenue estimates, but also to advise the
Sultan on the drive of the Government, to review policies implemented by the
Government and to pass bills and motions brought by the Government and
other members of the Council.
• The Council comprises the Sultan, the Crown Prince, cabinet ministers and
three types of members: members with titles, members representing districts,
and members among outstanding Bruneians. All members, other than the
Sultan, are appointed by the Sultan in accordance with Article 24 of Brunei
Constitution.
― Legislative
• The Council follows the practice of other Commonwealth parliaments. All bills
presented in the Council go through three readings. All bills, however, must obtain
prior approval from the Cabinet prior to their presentation in the Council. Once a bill
is passed, a bill must obtain Royal Assent in order to turn such bill to an Act.

― Executive
• The Sultan
― Head of the state and head of the government
― He exercises absolute powers and full executive authority under the framework of
the 1959 Constitution
― The Sultan is advised by and presides over five councils, which he appoints. The
five councils are the Privy Council, Council of Succession, Religious Council,
Council of Ministers and the Legislative Council

• Privy Council
― According to the Constitution, the Privy Council advises the Sultan in the matters
concerning the exercise of authority of mercy and the amendment or revocation of
provisions in the Constitution
― The council also advises the Sultan on the conferring of Malay customary ranks,
titles and honours
― It also performs functions such as proclaiming a succession of regency. Members of
the Privy Council include members of the royal family and senior government
officials
― Executive
• Council of Succession
― The Council of Succession determines succession to the throne should that need arise.
The order of succession is determined by the Constitution

• Religious Council
― The Religious Council, known in full as the Brunei Islamic Religious Council (BIRC)
advises the Sultan on all matters pertaining to Islam
― The body in charge of Islamic administration policy. Policies determined by the council
are executed by the Ministry of Religious Affairs
― Members of the Religious Council include government ministers, a pengiran cheteria,
pehin manteris, state mufti, the Attorney General, the Syarie Chief Justice and additional
members appointed by the Sultan

• Council of Ministers
― Council of Ministers, or cabinet, which currently consists of nine members (including the
Sultan himself as Prime Minister), perform the day-to-day administrative functions of
government
― Judiciary
• Brunei has a dual legal system. The first is the system inherited from the British, similar
to the ones found in India, Malaysia and Singapore. It is based on the English common
law, but with codification of a significant part of it. The common law legal system covers
most of the laws in Brunei.
― Judiciary
• The structure of the common law courts in Brunei starts with the magistracy.
There are currently less than 10 magistrates for the country, all of whom are
locals. A rung above the magistracy is the intermediate courts. This was set up to
be a training ground for the local. There are currently two intermediate court
judges, both are locals.
• There is no jury system in Brunei; a judge or magistrate sits alone to hear a case
except for capital punishment cases where two High Court judges will sit

• The High Court of the Supreme Court

― currently consist of three judges, two of whom are locals.
― The Chief Justice is a High Court of Hong Kong judge

• The Court of Appeal of the Supreme Court

― consists of three Judges, all of whom are currently retired British judges.
― The Court of Appeal sits twice a year for about a month each time

• The other system of justice in Brunei is the shariah courts. It deals mainly in
Muslim divorce and matters ancillary to a Muslim divorce in its civil jurisdiction and
in the offences of khalwat (close proximity) and zina (illicit sex) amongst Muslims
― The shariah court structure is similar to the common law court structure except that it
has no intermediate court and that the Court of Appeal is the final court of appeal
― Judiciary
• All magistrates and judges in both the common law courts and the shariah
courts are appointed by the Government. All local magistrates and judges were
appointed from the civil service with none thus far being appointed from private
practice

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Brunei
MYANMAR (BURMA; THE REPUBLIC
OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR

Official Name: Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw Burmese); Republic of the Union of Myanmar
(ENG)
Capital: Naypyidaw
Official Language/s: Burmese Script
Form of Government: Unitary Parliamentary Republic
Population: 53,582,855 (2017) [25th]
GDP (PPP): $355 billion (2019 est.); $6,707 per capita (2019 est.)
GDP (Nominal): $66 billion (2019 est.); $1,245 per capita (2019 est.)
Currency: Kyat (MMK)
BACKGROUND
Brief History
― 19th century
• The British East India Company seized control of the administration of Myanmar
after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a
British colony

― 1941
• Myanmar was devastated during WWII as it became a major battleground where
American and British armies fought invasive Japanese troops

― 1948
• Myanmar was granted independence as a democratic nation

― 1962
• Following a coup d'état in 1962, it became a military dictatorship under the
Burma Socialist Programme Party
Brief History
― 1989
• The military government changed the name of the country from Burma to Myanmar
― 2011
• The military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a
nominally civilian government was installed
• This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has
improved the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to
the easing of trade and other economic sanctions

Government
― Type: Parliamentary Democracy
― Legal system: Unique combination of the customary law of the family, codified English
common law and recent Myanmar legislation.
― Organs:
• Executive
• Legislature
• Judiciary
― Legislative
• The Assembly of the Union is the national-level bicameral legislature of Myanmar
established by the 2008 National Constitution
• The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw is made up of two houses, the Amyotha Hluttaw
(House of Nationalities), a 224-seat upper house as well as the Pyithu Hluttaw, a
440-seat lower house (House of Representatives)
• Each of the fourteen major administrative regions and states has its own local
Hluttaw: Region Hluttaw (Region Assembly) or State Hluttaw (State Assembly).
• Amyotha Hluttaw
― Upper house of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw
― Elected on the basis of township as well as population
― Consists of 224 representatives with 56 being military personnel nominated by
the Commander-in-Chief of the Defense Services

• Pyithu Hluttaw
― Lower house of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw
― Has an equal number of representatives elected from Regions and States
― Consists od 440 representatives, with 110 military personnel nominated by the
Commander-in-Chief of the Defense Services
― Executive
• President
― Head of the state and de jure head of the government
― Oversees the Cabinet of Myanmar

• State Counsellor
― De facto head of the government

• Commander-in-Chief of Defense Services Tatmadaw

― He has the right to appoint 25% of members in all legislative assembly which
means that the legislation cannot be Super-majority without support from
Tatmadaw thus preventing from democratically elected members to amend
2008 Constitution of Myanmar which was not approved by Burmese citizens
― He can also directly appoint ministers in Ministry of Defence (Myanmar) which
in turn controls Myanmar Armed Forces and Myanmar Economic Corporation
which is the largest economic corporation in Myanmar, Ministry of Border Affairs
(Myanmar) which control border affairs of the country and Ministry of Home
Affairs (Myanmar) which in turn control Myanmar police forces and
administration of the whole country
― Judiciary
• Myanmar's judicial system is limited. British-era laws and legal systems remain
much intact, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial
• The judiciary is not independent of the executive branch
• Myanmar does not accept compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction
• The highest court in the land is the Supreme Court

Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Myanmar#Legislative_branch
― END ―