Biochemistry

Power to Understand What We Are!!

Tensae Gebru (M.Sc)

Dep’t of Med. Biochemistry,
AAU, CHS, SM
 Learning
objectives
At the end of this session the students will be able to:-

• List the major chemical elements of life.

• Explain the significance non-covalent interactions.

• Discuss the properties and role of water.

• Explain the roles of carbohydrates and its

classification.
 Outlin
e
• Common elements of life

• Important functional groups and non-

covalent interactions.

• Water and acid-base balance, buffers

• Carbohydrate structure:
monosaccharides, sugar derivatives and
disaccharides
 Organization of
• Elements
Life
• Simple organic compounds
(monomers)
• Macromolecules (polymers)
• Supramolecular structures
• Organelles
• Cells
• Tissues
• Organisms
Elements:
– Substances that can not be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical reactions.
–There are 110 different elements that are known to man.
• Life requires about 25 of them.

• The living matter is composed of mainly six elements-Carbon,

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulphur. (CHONPS).
– These elements together constitute about 90% of the dry weight of
the human body.

• Several other functionally important elements are also found in the cells.
● These include- Ca, K, Na, Cl, Mg, Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, F, M o and Se.
 Carbon-a unique element of
lifeis the most predominant and versatile
• Carbon
element
of life.

• It possesses as unique property to form

infinite number of compounds.

• This is attributed to the ability of carbon to

form:
● stable covalent bonds and C-C chains of unlimited
length.

• It is estimated that about 90% of compounds found

in living system invariably contain carbon.
 Functional
Groups:
• Groups of atoms that have unique chemical
and physical properties.

• Compounds that are made up solely of carbon

and hydrogen are not very reactive.

• One or more H atoms of the carbon skeleton may

be replaced by a functional group.

• Functional groups determine chemical &

physical properties of organic molecules.
 Biomolecules are compounds of carbon with a variety of functional groups

FIG. Major types of functional groups found in biochemical compounds of the human
body.
Types of
biomolecules
■ Small molecules:

■ Phospholipid, glycolipid,
■ sterol, Vitamin
■ Hormone, neurotransmitter
■ Sugar
■ Monomers:
■ Amino acids
■ Nucleotides
■ M onos accharides
■ Polymers
:■ Peptides, oligopeptides, polypeptides, proteins
■ Nucleic acids, i.e. DNA, RNA
■ Oligosaccharides, polysaccharides (including
cellulose)
Making and Breaking
Polymers

■ There are two main chemical mechanisms in

the production and break down of
macromolecules.
■ Condensation or Dehydration Synthesis
■ Hydrolysis

■ In the cell these mechanisms are regulated by

en zymes.
Relatively few monomers are used by cells to make a
huge variety of macromolecules

Macromolecule Monomers or Subunits

1. Carbohydrates 20-30
monosaccharides or simple sugars

2. Proteins 20 amino acids

3. Nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) 4

nucleotides (A,G,C,T/U)

4. Lipids (fats and oils) ~ 20 different

fatty acids

and glycerol.
Structural hierarchy in the molecular organization of
cells

Just like cells are building blocks of tissues, biomolecules

are building blocks of cells.
Similarities among all types of
cells
■ All cells use nucleic acids (DNA) to store
information
■
(incapable
Except RNAofviruses,
autonomous
but not true cells
replication)
■ All cells use nucleic acids (RNA) to
access stored information

■ All cells use proteins as catalysts (enzymes) for chemical

reactions
■ A few examples of RNA based enzymes, which may reflect primordial use
of RNA
■ All cells use lipids for membrane
components
■ Different types of lipids in different types of
cells
■ All cells use carbohydrates for cell walls (if present),
recognition, and energy generation
Chemical composition of a normal man
( weight 65 kg)

Constituent Percent (%) Weight (kg)

Water 61.6 40

Protein 17.0 11

Lipid 13.8 9

Carbohydrate 1.5 1

Minerals 6.1 4
Water: The Ideal Compound for Life

– Living cells are 60-90% water

– Water covers 3/4 of earth’s surface

– Water is the ideal solvent for

chemical reactions

– On earth, water exists as gas, liquid,

and solid
 Wate
• Making up 60% or more of rthe weight of most organisms.

• Biological macromolecules assume specific shapes in response

to the chemical and physical properties of water.

• Biological molecules undergo chemical reactions in an

aqueous environment.

• Many of the weak interactions within and between biomolecules

are strongly influenced by the solvent properties of water.
– such as membrane lipids, interact with each other in ways dictated by
the polar properties of water.
Fig.2 Fluid compartments of the body.
Volumes are for an average 70-kg
pers on.
 Functions of Water in Human
Body
• Transports nutrients and oxygen into
cells

• Regulates body temperature

• Detoxifies
• Moisturizes the air in lungs
• Helps with metabolism
• Protects vital organ
• Helps organs to absorb nutrients

• Protects and moisturizes our joints

18
 Hydrolysis/ Energy
Release
• Water is needed to separate (by hydrolysis) a
phosphate group from ATP or GTP to get
energy.
• Without water hydrolysis is not possible.

• ATP +H2O = Energy + ADP + Inorganic

Phosphate
• GTP +H2O = Energy + GDP + Inorganic
Phosphate

• Water is the engine of metabolism.

19

• Participates in the biochemical break-down of

 Variation in Water
Tissue type:
Levels
●lean tissues have higher fluid content than fat
tissues. Gender:
●males have more lean tissue and therefore more body
fluid. Age:
●lean tissue is lost with age and body fluid is lost with it.

NB Lean tissue is the muscle tissue without

: fat.
 Wate
r
• A water molecule (H2O), is made up
of three atoms --- one oxygen and
two hydrogen.
 Polarit
• y
Many of water’s biological functions stem from
its chemical structure.

• Water is a polar molecule

– The oxygen in water is more electronegative than
the hydrogen
– It has unequal charge distribution that results in
areas of δ- and δ+ charge (δ = partial)
• A polar covalent bond
• Creates a permanent dipole in the molecule.
• Can determine relative solubility of molecules
‘’like dissolves like’’.
 Polarity of water causes hydrogen
bonding
● Water molecules are held together by H-bonding
● Partially positive H attracted to partially negative O
atom.

● Individual H bond are weak, but the cumulative effect

of many H bonds is very strong.

● H bonds only last a fraction of a second, but at any

moment most molecules are hydrogen bonded to
others.
 Unique properties of water caused by H-
bonds
– Cohes ion: Water molecules s tick to each other.
This causes surface tension.
• Film-like surface of water is difficult to break.
• Used by some insects that live on water surface.
• Water forms beads.
– Adhesion: Water sticks to many surfaces.
Capillary Action: Water tends to ris e in narrow tubes .
This is caused by cohesion and adhesion (water
molecules stick to walls of tubes).
Examples: Upward movement of water through plant
vessels and fluid in blood vessels.
 Unique properties of water caused by H-
– bonds
Expands when it freezes.
• Ice forms stable H bonds, each molecule is bonded to
four neighbors (crystalline lattice).
– Water does not form stable H bonds.
• Ice is less dense than water.
• Ice floats on water.
• Life can survive in bodies of water, even though the earth
has gone through many winters and ice ages
 Unique properties of water caused by H-
bonds
– Stable Temperature: Water resists changes in
temperature because it has a high specific heat.
• Specific Heat: Amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 g
of substance 1 degree Celsius
– Specific Heat of Water: 1 calorie/gram/oC

• High heat of vaporization: Water must absorb large amounts

of energy (heat) to evaporate.
– Heat of Vaporization of Water: 540 calorie/gram.
• Evaporative cooling is used by many organisms to regulate
body temperature.
– Sweating
– Panting
 Unique properties of water caused by its
polarity
– Universal Solvent: Dissolves many (but not all)
substances.
Two Types of Solutes:
A. Hydrophilic: “Water loving” dissolve easily in water.
• Ionic compounds (e.g. salts)
• Polar compounds (molecules with polar regions)
• Examples: Compounds with -OH groups (alcohols).
• “Like dissolves in like”
B. Hydrophobic: “Water fearing” do not dissolve in water
• Non-polar compounds (lack polar regions)
• Examples: Hydrocarbons with only C-H non-polar bonds,
oils, gasoline, waxes, fats, etc.
 The body produces more acids
than bases
• Acids take in with foods.
• Cellular metabolism produces CO2.
• Acids produced by metabolism of lipids and
proteins.

Volatile H2CO3 CO2+ CO2 CO2

acid H2O

H2SO4
Fixed acid H3PO4
Uric acid
Lactic acid
Ketone body 34
 2. Respiratory
mechanisms CO2 CO2
• Exhalation of
• CO2
Rapid, powerful, but only works with
volatile acids
• H+ + HCO3- ↔ H2CO3 ↔ CO2 + H20

• Doesn’t affect fixed acids like lactic acid

• Body pH can be adjusted by changing rate

and depth of breathing
51
 3. Kidney
excretion
• Most effective regulator of pH
• The pH of urine is normally acidic (~6.0)
– H+ ions generated in the body are eliminated by
acidified urine.

• Can eliminate large amounts of acid (→H+)

• Reabsorption of bicarbonate (HCO3-) (←HCO3-)
• Excretion of ammonium ions(NH4+) (→NH4+)
• If kidneys fail, pH balance fails
52
 Rates of
correction
• Buffers function: almost instantaneously

• Respiratory mechanisms: take several

minutes to hours

• Renal mechanisms: may take several hours

to days
53
 Non covalent bonds in
biological structures
• Non-covalent interactions are weak electrical
bonds between molecules.

• Types of non-covalent interactions are:

– ionic (electrostatic) bonds,
– H-bonds, and
– van der Waals interactions.
• Non-covalent interactions (1-5 kcal/mol) are typically
~ 100-fold weaker than covalent bonds .
– Play important roles in protein and nucleic acid
stabilization because they are "collectively strong."
 Ionic Interactions
● Ionic interactions occur between cations and anions.

● These bonds are non-directional.

● Strength depends on the medium (dielectric

constant), and is less in polar than nonpolar
solvents.

● Water is effective at screening the

electrostatic interactions between dissolved
ions because :
●it has a high dielectric constant, a physical property that reflects the
number of dipoles in a solvent.
 …
cont’d
● Ionic compounds such as NaCl are readily dissolved
in water .

● Water molecules:
●hydrate and stabilize Na+ and Cl- ions,
●weakening the electrostatic interactions between them and
●countering their tendency to associate in a crystalline lattice.

● The resulting increase in entropy (randomness) of the

system is largely responsible for the ease of
dissolving NaCl in water.
Solvation spheres of water molecules surround ions
in solutions.
 H-bonds
● H-bonds are noncovalent interactions occurring
between the H atom of a dipolar molecule such as
water, and the unshared electron pair of another atom
(i.e., O or N).

● These bonds represent the primary way in which :

●water molecules interact with themselves and many types of
biomolecules .

● Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and compounds

containing N-H bonds all form hydrogen bonds
with water molecules and tend to be soluble in
water.
Fig. Biologically important hydrogen
bonds
 Importance of Hydrogen
Bonds
• Source of unique properties of water

• Structure and function of proteins

• Structure and function of DNA

• Structure and function of polysaccharides

• Binding of substrates to enzymes

• Binding of hormones to receptors

• Matching of mRNA and tRNA

 Hydrogen Bond Directionality and
Strength
● Hydrogen bonds are highly directional in that strength
depends on the proper alignment of the interacting
atoms.

● The best alignment occurs when the orbital containing the

unshared electron pair of the acceptor atom is in line with
the covalent bond between the donor atom and H.
● Directionality confers bonding specificity as with the Watson-Crick
hydrogen bonds between the bases of double helical DNA (A-T; G-
C), and results in very precise three dimensional structures for
nucleic acid and protein molecules.
 Van der Waals
Interactions
● Van der Waals interactions are bonds between
fluctuating, induced dipoles within the electron
clouds of interacting molecules.

● These bonds can occur between nonpolar or

polar molecules.

● Van der Waals bonds are extremely dependent on

the distance of separation between molecules, and
are significant only when the electron clouds of the
molecules are just touching.
 The Hydrophobic
Effect
• Refers to the association or folding of
nonpolar molecules in the aqueous solution.
• Is one of the main factors behind:
– protein folding
– protein-protein association
– formation of lipid micelles
– binding of steroid hormones to their receptors
• Does not arise because of some attractive direct
force between two nonpolar molecules.
 The Hydrophobic
Effect
● Refers to the entropy-driven aggregation of
nonpolar molecules in aqueous solution.

● This is not an attractive force, but rather a

thermodynamically driven process.

● The hydrophobic effect drives:

●the formation of membranes and
●contributes to the folding of proteins and
●the formation of double helical DNA.

● Fig. sh ows the cage-like structures formed by water molecules

surrounding a nonpolar solute.
The Hydrophobic
Effect
Most Abundant Class of Biomolecules in
Nature.
 Functions of
Carbohydrates
1) Energy
• glucose fuels the work of most of the body’s cells
– preferred fuel of NERVOUS TISSUE (the brain, nerves) and RED BLOOD CELLS
(RBC)
• excess glucose is stored as GLYCOGEN in liver and muscle tissue

2) Sparing Body Protein

• if diet does not provide enough glucose, then other sources of
glucose must be found
• if carbohydrate intake < 50 - 100 g, body protein will be used to
make glucose
• an adequate supply of carbohydrate spares body proteins from
being broken down to synthesize glucose

68
 …
cont’d
3) Preventing Ketosis (Anti-ketogenic)
– carbohydrates required for the
complete metabolism of fat
– incomplete fat metabolism produces
KETONES
– an adequate supply of carbohydrate (> 50 – 100
g per day) prevents KETOSIS

NB: Carbohydrate intake can take place in

different forms like sugar, starch, fibers etc.

69
 DEFINING CARBOHYDRATES

● Carbohydrates or Saccharides (Greek Sakcharon meaning

"Sugar")

• Organic compounds composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen.

• Many Carbohydrates also contain Nitrogen and other elements.

• Carbohydrates derive their name from a Misleading Concept

'Hydrates of Carbon’

• Hydrogen and Oxygen in Carbohydrates were found to be present in the same proportion

as in water. (2:1).(E.g. Glucose C6H12O6

• It is due to this fact that compounds derived their name “Carbon Hydrate”.
● This term is not a perfect derivation as many
carbohydrates do not have the same
proportion as water.
● (E.g. DEOXYRIBOSE ,C5H10O4)

● CHEMICAL DEFINITION OF CARBOHYDRATES

● Carbohydrates are Polyhydroxy Alcohols with

Carbonyl groups Which May Either Be Aldehyde (H-
C
=O) or Keto (C=O) Groups.
 Types of
Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
– monosaccharides
– disaccharides

Complex Carbohydrates
– oligosaccharides
– polysaccharides
• glycogen
• starches
• Fibers Fig. examples of an aldose (A)
and a ketose(B) sugar.
 Types of
carbohydrates
• Classifications based on number of sugar units in
total chain.

• Monosaccharides - single sugar unit

• Disaccharides - two sugar units
• Oligosaccharides - 3 to 10 sugar units
• Polysaccharides - more than 10 units

• Chaining relies on ‘bridging’ of oxygen atoms

• glycoside bonds
 MONOSACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides are those carbohydrates which Cannot be Hydrolyzed further into
more

simple carbohydrates.
• Thus, they are the Simplest form of Carbohydrates.
• They are further classified on the basis of:
– Aldehyde or Ketone Group:
• Aldomonosaccharides (Aldoses).
• Ketomonosaccharides (Ketoses).
– Carbon Chain Length.
• Trioses.
• Tetroses.
• Pentoses.
• Hexoses.
• Heptoses.
 Properties of monosaccharides
1. Optical Isomerism
● All the monosaccharides except dihydroxyacetone contain
at least one asymmetric carbon atom and hence they
exhibit optical isomerism.
● D and L-glyceraldehyde are used as parent compounds
to designate all other sugars (compounds) as D or L
forms.

D & L designations are

based on the configuration
about the single
asymmetric C in
glyceraldehyde.

The lower
representations are
Fischer Projections.
 ‘

For sugars with more than

one chiral center,D or L
refers to the asymmetric
C farthest from the
aldehyde or keto group.

If the hydroxyl group of the highest numbered chiral carbon is

pointing to the right, the sugar is designated as D (Dextro: Latin for
on the right side).

If the hydroxyl group is pointing to the left, the sugar is designated as

L (Levo: Latin for on the left side).

Most naturally occurring carbohydrates are of the D-configuration

 2.Optical
• Activity
Monosaccharides except dihydroxy acetone exhibit optical
activity because of the presence of at least 1 asymmetric
carbon atom.

• If a sugar rotates plane polarized light to right then it is called as

dextrorotatory and if a sugar rotates the plane polarized light to
the left then it is called as levorotatory.

• Usually ‘+’ sign indicates dextrorotation and ‘–’ sign

indicates levorotation of a sugar.

• Right Rotation (dextrorotatory) E.g. D(+)- Glucose

• Left Rotation (levorotatory) E.g. D(-)-Fructose

 S tereois omer
• Stereochemistry s
• Study of the spatial arrangement of
molecules.

• Stereoisomers have
• the same order and types of
• bonds. different spatial
arrangements.

• different
properties.

• Many biologically important chemicals, like sugars, exist

as stereoisomers. Your body can tell the difference.
 S tereochemis tr
y

•Enantiomers = mirror images

•Pairs of isomers that have opposite configurations at one or
more chiral centers but are NOT mirror images are diastereomers
•Epimers = Two sugars that differ in configuration at only one
chiral center
 Anomers
● Cyclization of glucose produces a new asymmetric center at
C1.

● The 2 stereoisomers are called anomers, α & β.

Haworth projections represent the cyclic sugars as

having essentially planar rings, with the OH at the
● α (OH below the ring)
anomeric C1:
● β (OH above the
ring).
 Some important
monosaccharides
• D-glyceraldehyde Simplest
sugar
• D-glucose Most important in
diet
• D-fructose Sweetest of all
sugars
• D-galactose Part of milk
sugar
• D-ribose note that
Usedeach
in RNA
is a D-
enantiomer
 D-glucose
• Glucose is an aldohexose sugar.
• Common names include dextrose, grape sugar,
blood sugar.
• brain cells, RBCs and the growing embryo only
utilize glucose as a source of energy. O
• energy source for cells in the body. H
C
• building block of disaccharides and
• polysaccharides it is the sugar present in blood. H
OH
C

• dietary sources: fruits, vegetables(in the form of

starch), honey
HO C H

H C OH

H C
●normal values fasting:
OH
65 to 110mg/dl
random: below 140 CH
mg/dl
OH
2
 D-FRUCTOSE: IMPORTANCE AND
BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

● Dietary sources: fruit juices, honey and sugar cane.

● sweetest sugar

● Seminal fluid is rich in fructose.

● Sperm utilizes fructose for energy

● In the seminiferous tubular epithelial cells, fructose is formed

from glucose.
 D-GALACTOSE: IMPORTANCE AND BIOLOGICAL
SIGNIFICANCE

● dietary source: diary products

● less sweet than glucose

● used in the synthesis of milk sugar in mammary glands

● it is a constituent of glycolipids and glycoproteins

● it is required for the development of brain and nervous tissue

in infants.
 Importance of
pentoses
• RIBOSE: it is a constituent of nucleic
acid that is RNA

• 2-DEOXYRIBOSE: it is a constituent of
DNA
 Monosaccharide Derivatives
of Biological Importance
• Oxidation Products (Sugar Acids)

• Reduction Products (Sugar Alcohols).

• Amino Sugars.

• Sugar Phosphates.
 Oxidation Products (Sugar
Acids)
• When oxidized under proper conditions, Aldoses
may form three types of acids (Sugar Acids):

– Uronic Acids.
– Aldonic acids.
– Saccharic Acids.
• Type of sugar Acid produced depends on which
carbon is oxidized.
 H-C=O Aldonic
Acid
H- COOH At Carbonyl Carbon
Oxidation Of Aldose
H-C-
(Aldehyde Group)
C=O
OH
H-C-
Saccharic Acid
OH-C-H OH
OH-C- H- COOH
H-C- H C=O
OH H-C- H-C-OH Oxidation Of Aldose
CH2OH
H-C-COOH OH
At Both Aldehyde &
Terminal Carbons
Oxidation
OH Of H-C- OH-C-
Aldose At Primary OH H
Alcohol (Terminal CH2OH H-C-
Carbon)
OH
Uronic Acid H-C-
COOH
OH

C H2OH
 MONOSACCHARIDE DERVATIVES
• Important uronic acids in humans are D-
glucuronic acid and its epimer L-iduronic
acid

– In liver cells glucuronic acid combines with

steroids, certain drugs, and bilirubin to improve
water solubility therby helping the removal of
waste products from the body

– These acids are abundant in the connective

tissue carbohydrate components.
Amino Sugar: • Substitution of Amino Group for a
Hydroxyl Group of a Sugar Results in the
Formation of an Amino Sugar.
• The Amino Group is attached to Carbon 2.
H-C=O • Common Examples of Amino Sugars
( Aminosaccharides)

H-C-OHNH2 – Galactosamine
– Glucosamine
OH-C-H – common constituents of complex
carbohydrate molecule found
H-C-OH attached to cellular proteins and
lipids
– Amino acids are often acetylated e.g.
H-C-OH N- acetyl-glucosamine.

CH2OH
 Sugar Alcohols; Reduction
Products
• Sugar Alcohols are obtained by reduction of
Monosaccharides (Both Aldoses and Ketoses)
and
disaccharides.
• Sugar alcohols, also known as Polyols,
Polyhydric Alcohols, or Polyalcohols.
Sugar Alcohols are the Hydrogenated forms of
the Aldoses or Ketoses
H- C=O + H2 CH2OH

H-C-OH H-C-OH

OH-C- OH-C-H
H
H-C- H-C-OH
OH
H-C-OH
H-C-
OH CH2OH
CH2OH Sorbitol
Glucose
Sugars with their Corresponding
Alcohols
Glyceraldehyde & Glycero
l
Dihydroxyaceton Sorbitol (Glucitol)
e Mannitol
Glucos Sorbitol &
e Mannitol Dulcitol
Mannose Ribitol
Fructose Erythrito
Galactos l
e Xylitol
Ribos e Lactitol

Erythros M altito
e Xylos e l
 Sugar Phosphates

• Phosphate Esters formed by various

Monosaccharides are of Great Importance in
Metabolic Reactions.

• Sugar phosphates of biological importance:

– Ribose and Deoxyribose in Nucleic Acids are
Phosphate Esters of these
monosaccharides.
– Phosphates of Glucose, Fructose and
Glyceraldehyde etc. are important intermediate
compounds in carbohydrate metabolism of almost
all the cells.
Mono sugar
derivatives
• DEOXYSUGARS
– monosaccharides in which an - H has replaced
an – OH group
– Important sugars:
• L-fucose (formed from D-mannose by reduction reactions)
and
• 2-deoxy-D-ribose
– L-fucose – found among carbohydrate components
of glycoproteins, such as those of the ABO blood
group determinates on the surface of red blood cells
– 2-deoxyribose is the pentose sugar component of
DNA.
 Dis accharides

• Two Joined Monosaccharides.

• Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose
• α, β(1→2).
• Maltose: Glucose + Glucose
• α(1® 4).
• Lactose: Glucose +
Galactose
• β (1→4).
 Lactos
e
• Also called milk sugar because it naturally occurs
only in milk.

• On hydrolysis it yields one molecule of glucose and

one molecule of galactose which are linked
together through 1-4 glycosidic linkage

• Two Monomer Units of Lactose are:-

– Glucose.
– Galactose.
 Biological Significance of
• SoleLactose
source of Carbohydrates in Neonates.
• Absorption of Calcium.
• Source of Galactose (for developing Brain)
• Clinical Aspects.
– Lactosuria (During pregnancy and
lactation).
– Lactose intolerance.
 LACTOSE INTOLERANCE:

• due to the absence of the enzyme lactase

• undigested lactose leads to bacterial

fermentation in colon and generation of
gases.

• these products cause diarrhea, bloating

and pain in the GIT.

• treatment: formula feed

 Sucrose
● It is common table sugar.
● Mainly found in Sugar Cane.
● It has 1,2 glycosidic linkage.

● Two Monomer Units of Sucrose are:-

● Glucose.
● Fructose.

● CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Small amounts of

oral sucrose placed in the infant's mouth
reduces procedural pain.
 M ALTOS E

●yields upon the hydrolysis of starch(amylase)

●made up of two molecules of glucose

●glycosidic linkage(1,4)

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
● maltose is digested by the enzyme maltase. baby
foods contain maltose because it is easily digested.
 OLIGOS AACCHARIDES

● comprised of three to
ten monosaccharides
● example:
fructooligosaccharides
● cell membrane proteins
contain oligosaccharides.

● the oligosaccharide units of glycoproteins

are rich in information and are
functionally important.
 References
• Nelson, D. L. And Cox, M.M. (2005). Lehninger Principles
of Biochemistry 5th edition.

• Murray R.K et al. Harper's illustrated Biochemistry 30th

edition .

• Pamela C.C, and Richard A.H., Lippincott's Illustrated

Reviews: Biochemistry 5th edition, J.B.

• Thomas M. Devlin. Text Book of Biochemistry with

Clinical Correlations. 6th Edition, 2006, Wiley-Liss
Publication, USA
 ,

Thank
You!!