CIV 442

HYDROLOGY
LECTURE 3B:
HYDRO-METEOROLOGY

Prof. Evan K. Paleologos

Civil Engineering
 HUMIDITY

Abu Dhabi University,

January 2014
 HUMIDITY

Al Bahr Towers,
November 2014

Humidity is a measure of the water

vapor content of the air. There are
several ways in which a
meteorologist can express the
humidity of the air. Humidity is
controlled by air temperature.
 HUMIDITY
Absolute humidity is the weight of water vapor per unit
volume of air, usually measured in units of grams of water
vapor per cubic meter of air. However, Absolute humidity
is not used because the volume is sensitive to changes in
both the temperature of the air and atmospheric pressure.

For instance, let's say that a 1 cubic meter parcel of air at

the surface has 2 grams of water in it. Now lift the parcel
of air upwards into the atmosphere. As the air rises upward
the decrease in atmospheric pressure on the parcel allows
it to expand outward occupying more space.

Let's say that the parcel doubles in size as a result of

uplift. Before rising, the absolute humidity was 2 gm/m 3.
As the air doubles in volume the new absolute humidity
becomes 1 gm/ m3. In actuality the parcel still has the
same weight of water in it, 2 grams. But given the way
absolute humidity is calculated it appears the amount of
water in the air has decreased. 
 HUMIDITY
Instead of absolute humidity, we use a measure that is not
sensitive to volume changes in the air.

Specific humidity is the weight of water vapor in the air per

Pressure Units unit weight of air, which includes the weight of water vapor.
The units of measurement are grams of water vapor per
1 bar = 105 N/m2, kilogram of air. Given that weight is not significantly influenced
1N/m2= 1 Pa by temperature or atmospheric pressure, specific humidity is
much more useful as a measure of humidity.
1 mbar (millibar) =
102 N/m2
1mm Hg = 1.36 mbar Another measure very similar to specific humidity is the mixing
ratio. The mixing ratio is the weight of water vapor per unit
weight of dry air.

Humidity creates pressure in the air. Vapor pressure is the

partial pressure created by water
atmospheric pressure, is measured
vapor pressure eS is simply the
creates when the air is fully
condensation starts).
vapor. Vapor pressure, like
in millibars. The saturation
pressure that water vapor
saturated (which is when
SATURATED VAPOR PRESSURE &
CONDENSATION

At a fixed temperature air can hold a

maximum quantity of vapor (air saturated
by vapor) before condensation (the
transformation of vapor to water).

The pressure exerted by the vapors of a

saturated in vapor air is called saturated
vapor pressure eS and it is specific for a
fixed air temperature.
 HUMIDITY
Dew point temperature is the temperature at which
condensation takes place and is used as a measure of
moisture content. It gets its name "dew point" because dew
will form on surfaces when the air reaches saturation.

(250C, 20mbar)

Dew point = 200C

 HUMIDITY
The saturation level of the air is directly related to the
air's temperature. As air temperature increases, more
water can remain in a gas phase. As temperature
decreases, water molecules slow down and there is a
greater chance for them to condense on to surfaces.

Note that below zero degrees Celsius the curve splits,

one for the saturation point of air above a liquid surface
(liquid-vapor) and one for air above a surface of ice (ice
- vapor).

The first thing you might be wondering is how water can

exist as a liquid below the freezing point. Water that is
not frozen below 0o C is called "super-cooled water". For
water to freeze, the molecules must become properly
aligned to attach to one another. This is less likely to
occur especially with small amounts of water, like cloud
droplets. Thus in clouds where temperatures are below
freezing it is common to find both super-cooled liquid
water and ice crystals.
AIR UPLIFT MECHANISMS
 UPLIFT MECHANISMS
Convective uplift happens when a parcel of air, which has
gained heat from the land surface, gets to be uplifted. When
the air is warmed by the surface it will expand and become
less dense relative to air that surrounds it. Being less dense,
the parcel of air becomes buoyant and begins to rise.
Because atmospheric pressure decreases with height, this
parcel of air expands and cools. If the air cools to its dew
point temperature saturation occurs and condensation
begins.

Convergent uplift occurs when air enters a center of low

pressure. As air is pulled into the center of a cyclone it is
forced to rise off the surface. As the air rises it expands,
cools, and water vapor condenses.

Convergent and convective uplift are the two most important

uplift mechanisms for condensation in the tropics.
 
UPLIFT MECHANISMS
Orographic uplift is the forced ascent of
air when it collides with a mountain. As
air strikes the windward side, it is
uplifted and cooled. Windward slopes of
mountains tend to be the rainy sides
while the leeward side is dry.

A rain shadow is a dry area on the lee

side of a mountainous area (away from
the wind).

As shown by the diagram to the left, the

incoming warm and moist air is drawn by
the prevailing winds towards the top of
the mountains, where it condenses and
precipitates before it crosses the top.
The air, without much moisture left,
advances behind the mountains creating
a drier side called the "rain shadow".
EXAMPLES OF OROGRAPHIC
PRECIPITATION

Andes
Calibrated TRMM Spatial resolution of data 5 by 5 km 2
Annual rainfall 1986-2006 (in m/yr)
Dark blue > 4, mid-blue 3-4, light blue 2-3
Light yellow 1-2, dark yellow 0.5-1, red<0.5
The Andes represent a major topographic barrier to atmospheric
circulation in South America. The Andes separates sharply
contrasting conditions in the humid Amazon lowlands and the
generally more arid Pacific margin to the west. Note the
generally high amounts of rainfall at orographic barriers on the
eastern flanks of the Andes.

Source: Bodo Bookhagen and Manfred R. Strecker (2008). Orographic

barriers, high-resolution TRMM rainfall, and relief variations along the
eastern Andes. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 35, L06403.
 EXAMPLES OF OROGRAPHIC
PRECIPITATION

Southern Alps
New Zealand

Currents of moist sea air passing over land and the coastal
mountains result in condensation and rainfall. On the western
lower regions 2-3m rainfall per year. Intensity increases rapidly
with elevation reaching a max of 11-12m per year about 20km
before the peak. On the eastern side precipitation less than
1m/year.
Green: Forest steppe EXAMPLES OF OROGRAPHIC
Dark green: Forests and
woodlands PRECIPITATION
  
   The Zagros mountains is a barrier in
south-west Iran against the air
currents from the Mediterranean, the
Caspian Sea, and the Arabian Gulf.
This has produced rain shadow and a
dry desert climate on the Iranian
plateau, but a zone of high
precipitation in the foreland.
desert
Precipitation is usually higher in the
northern and central parts of Zagros,
between 300 and 1,200 mm a year,
but is reduced to 100-500 mm a year
Semi-desert in the southern parts close to the
Arabian Gulf.
 RAIN SHADOW-UAE
Notice the green areas
right of the mountains
at Al Qua’a and the
desert to the left
 UPLIFT MECHANISMS

Frontal uplift occurs when greatly contrasting air masses

meet along a weather front. For example, when warm air
collides with cool air along a warm front, the warm air is
forced to rise up and over the cool air.

As the air gently rises over the cool air at the intersection
between the two air masses horizontal clouds form.
AIR TEMPERATURE
 DUBAI - 2012 TEMPERATURE
The hottest day of 2012
was June 22, with a high
temperature of 47°C.

The coldest day of 2012

was January 26, with a
low temperature of 12°C.

The daily low (blue) and high (red) temperature during 2012 with
the area between them shaded gray and superimposed over the
corresponding averages (thick lines), and with percentile bands
(inner band from 25th to 75th percentile, outer band from 10th to
90th percentile).
 INSTRUMENTS OF AIR
TEMPERATURE

MMTS Digital Readout

Electronic Maximum-Minimum Temperature Sensor (MMTS)

White case for radiation reflection and openings for free air
circulation around the temperature sensor so that temperature
is taken in shadow.
INSTRUMENTS OF AIR
TEMPERATURE (1)
Thermometer Shelters must be placed
at:

 Representative locations of the area

 At the same height (for

measurements to be comparable)

 Where good air circulation exists

INSTRUMENTS OF AIR
TEMPERATURE (2)

Thermometer Shelters must:

 Be at least 30 m away from concrete

surfaces

 Not be exposed to radiation and rain

 In USA they are placed 1.4 m above

the ground
 End Lecture Notes

Photo: 03 Jan 2015