Introduction to Research

Methods
Mayega Roy William
MB.Ch.B, MPH, PhD

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 Definitions
• Research may be defined as an organized form of
scientific inquiry in which information is collected
on phenomena of interest

• It is a systematic process of collection, analysis

and interpretation of data to answer a certain
question or solve a problem

• Research methods therefore refer to the techniques

used for such inquiry
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 Purpose of Research I
• To determine the distribution and magnitude of
characteristics in populations
• To establish the immediate causes of events of interest in
populations
• To establish the determinants of these conditions or events
• To determine possible interventions for the prevention of
disease
• To determine possible alternatives for prevention of
disease or other health related states
• To evaluate the efficacy of new approaches to treatment of
particular conditions
• To evaluate the efficacy of new approaches to disease
prevention and health promotion
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 Nature of Research Methods
• Research methods is a practical course –
you learn
– By reviewing
– By doing

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 Why Research Methods?
• PH professionals makes use of different methods
for research
• The researcher has to extrapolate their findings to
the general population
• These findings may be the basis for action
• The methods used therefore ought to be valid
• We ought to use methods that can be replicated
elsewhere to yield similar results
• There are therefore standard scientific procedures
for research
• These methods will be the basis for this course unit
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General Logic for Research
Methods
R e s e a rc h M e th o d s

P O P U L A T IO N

S T U D Y D E S IG N

S A M P LE

M ETH O D S 6
 Which are the key Methods I
• Problem Identification and Prioritization
• Problem analysis, statement of the problem and
justification
• Literature Review, citation and referencing
• Designing a conceptual framework
• Objective formulation, hypotheses and research questions
• Identifying the study population
• Study designs
– Epidemiological
– Alternative study designs
• Sample Size determination
• Sampling Procedures
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 Methods II
• Quantitative Data collection methods and tools
• Qualitative Data collection methods and tools
• Quality Control and Assurance
• Data Analysis, presentation conclusions and
recommendations
• Ethical considerations in research
• Research proposal/Report format, guidelines and
procedures

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 Problem Identification and
Prioritization
• It involves:
– A needs assessment
– Assessment of Public Health Needs (Problems)
– Dropping problems where the explanation is
already known
– Identifying problems that need actual research
– Prioritization of these problems

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Analysis, Statement of a problem
and Justification
• It involves:
– A brief introductory description of the context
in which the problem is set and its current
status
– Stating the problem (the gap between what is
and what is not)
– Expounding on the magnitude, the
consequences and possible explanatory factors
– Stating how research can answer the problem
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 Justification
• What is the public health importance of the
issue under investigation?

• Why does this research need to be

conducted now? (What is the urgency?)

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 Literature Review, Citation and
Referencing
• It involves:
– Review of literature in relation to the problem
– What have others found out in relation to the problem?
– Is the available information adequate?
– What gaps still exist in the current knowledge
– Were there any disagreements between different research
work?
– Literature review should be deep, scholarly
– Literature review should be structured according to a
logical plan
– At the end of the literature review, we sometimes tie up
our findings to launch the knowledge gap 12
 Citation and Referencing
• Proper citation, analysis and referencing of literature is
mandatory
• Using one of two methods:
• Author-date: (Boston/Harvard)
• Numbers (Vancouver)

• All graduate students must be able insert automatic

references using a reference manager – e.g. Endnote
• Plagiarism is NOT acceptable

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 Designing a conceptual
framework
• It involves:
– Developing a diagrammatic representation of the logic in
your problem analysis around the gap
– Identifying the relationships between various ‘concepts
and constructs’
– Identifying hierarchies between factors (Immediate,
Proximate and Underlying factors)
– Representing relationships logically in a flow diagram,
showing their relationship with the core problem
– Explaining the inter-relationships building up to the
problem
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 Objective formulation,
Hypotheses and Research
questions
• It involves:
– Setting a general objective or goal
– Diving up the goal into logical parts
– Setting SMART specific objectives
– Setting hypotheses for analytical studies
– Setting Research questions based on the
objective

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 Identifying the suitable study
population
• What is your study population (The
population to which your findings will be
generalized)?
• Which of this population is accessible
• Are there different populations for different
objectives?
• Who is the actual respondent?

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 Study designs
• Select an appropriate study design that
answers your problem and objectives
• It might be epidemiological or non-
epidemiological
• Studies may involve more than one method
(or ‘mixed methods’ studies) where
different objectives can employ different
methods
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 Epidemiological Study designs
• Select an appropriate study design that best answers
your problem
• “Rule of twos”
– Observational Studies
• Descriptive studies
– Case-series and case-studies
– Crossectional studies/Ecological studies
• Analytical studies
– Cohort studies (Prospective/Historical/Ambidextrous)
– Case-control studies
– Experimental Studies
• Clinical Trials
• Field Trials
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 Alternative Study Designs
• MakSPH is increasingly encouraging students to
explore alternative study designs
• Alternative designs may be the preferred method
for certain types of research questions e.g.
qualitative research
• They involve:
– Qualitative studies
– Non-randomized experimental studies (Quasi
experiments)
– Case studies
– Health Systems analyses 19
 Sample Size Determination
• It involves:
– Knowing the study design, estimated level of
occurrence of the issue understudy, desired
level of significance and sampling error
– Determining the appropriate formula for
computing
– Determining the appropriate sample size

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 Sampling Procedures
• Determining the study population and study units
• Applying appropriate selection procedures to
obtain the required sample
• We have to describe in detail step-by-step how we
shall reach the study unit
• Describe:
• Inclusion Criteria
• Exclusion Criteria

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 Quantitative Data collection
methods and tools
• They involve:
– Collection of similar information from a large
number of respondents
– Usually involve a statistical sample
– The objective is representation of the entire
population
– The main methods are “Structured
Questionnaires, Structured Checklists,
administered by self or face-to-face interviews
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 Quantitative Methods
• Design of tools is a highly technical process
• We have to identify different types of
variables that we want to measure
• We operationalize the variables into
measurable terms
• We develop measurements tools: Either
new or adopting existing items

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 Operationalizing Variables
• This is critical to developing the correct measurements
• Every measurement item must be valid
• We must develop the correct measurements
• Some variables need a battery of questions (composite
variables or a scale) while others need one question
• We need to validate our tool
• Includes:
– Face Validity
– Content Validity
– Criterion Validity
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 Qualitative Data collection
methods and tools
• Details of individual experiences, rather than
numbers are emphasized
• It throws more light on circumstances surrounding
phenomena
• They include:
– Non-structured Questionnaires or questionnaires that
include a few open questions (Semi-structured)
– Key Informant Interviews
– FGDs
– Many other methods for Participatory Rapid Appraisal
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 Quality Control and Assurance
• It includes:
– Rigor
– Training
– Supervision
– Monitoring
– Proper data handling

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 Data Analysis and Presentation
• Univariate analysis
– Analysis and presentation of categorical data
• Frequencies/counts
• Rates/Ratios/Proportions

– Analysis and presentation of numerical data

• Measures of central tendency
• Measures of dispersion

– Use appropriate figures and tables to present the data

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 Data Analysis and Presentation
• Bivariate analysis
– Cross tabulation of categorical variables
– Bivariate methods for continuous data in two or more
categories

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 Bivariate Analysis – Summary
1st Variable
Continuous (Random)
Continuous (Random)
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
2 Level Categorical
2 or multi-level categorical
2 Level Categorical
2nd Variable Test (Parametric)
Continuous (Random) Pearson’s Correlation
Continuous (Fixed) Simple Linear Regression
2 Level Categorical (Independent) Independent Samples t - test
2 Level Categorical (Dependent) Paired t - test
Multilevel categorical ANOVA and F-test
2 Level Categorical Chi-square test
OR
Odds Ratios
Risk Ratios (or RR)
Rate Ratios
Multi-level categorical Chi-square test
2 level categorical (Dependent) Mc-Nemar test
 Multivariate analysis
• To control for confounding
• To develop a model for predicting (E.g.
Logistic Regression)
– However, this is outside the scope of your
course

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 Discussion, conclusions and
recommendations
• Discussion
– Provide a scholarly discussion of your key
findings
• Conclusions and recommendations
– Make conclusions from key notable findings in
your study
– Make practical recommendations on what
needs to be done to address the issue of interest

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 Ethical Considerations in
Research
• It involves:
– Importance of ethics in research on human
subjects
– Ethical Principles and their application
• Respect of persons (autonomy, full informed
consent, justice, beneficence, non-malefiscence)
– Measures to address special ethical situations
• Vulnerable groups, ethical dilemmas

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 Research proposal/report format,
guidelines and procedures
• It involves:
– 1.0 The Introduction and Background
– 2.0 The Literature Review
– 3.0 Problem Statement, Justification
– 4.0 Objectives, Research Questions
– 5.0 Methodology/Methods
– 6.0 Results
– 7.0 Discussion, conclusions and recommendations
– 6.0 Appendices
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 Research proposal format,
guidelines and procedures
• 5.0 Methodology
5.1 Study population and study site
5.2 Study design
5.3 Sample size
5.4 Sampling procedures
5.5 Data collection procedures
5.6 Quality control
5.7 Variables
5.8 Data management and data analysis
5.9 Ethical considerations
5.10 Study limitations
5.11 Dissemination
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 References
• Varkevessier CM, I. Pathmanathan and A. Brownlee, (1991).
Designing and conducting health systems research projects.
Pt1. proposal development and fieldwork. Pt2. Data analysis
and report writing. IDRC. Ottawa, Canada

• Kakitahi J.T. (1998). Students’ guidelines for dissertation and

research proposal write-up. Makerere University Kampala

• Community Health Surveys: A practical guide for health

workers 1. Planning and Organizing; 2. Survey Sampling; 3.
Using available information; 4. Questionnaire design; 5.
Interviewing and Recording 6. Presenting survey Data;
http://www.amazon.co.uk/Linda-Lockerbie/e/B00IO1NU1S

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 END
• These issues will guide your study in the next one and
a half weeks
• Research methods is an apprenticeship course – you
learn
– By reviewing
– By doing
• Field projects will enable you practice the skills
learned

Thank You!

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