GMR Institute of Technology, Rajam

GMR Institute of Technology, Rajam
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Department of Civil Engineering
Dr. J.Sridhar
Associate Professor
GMR Institute of Technology
Department of Civil Engineering
19CE302 Building Materials And Concrete Technology
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Unit I Building Materials
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1 Stones- Tests on stones; Bricks – Classiﬁcation, Manufacturing
of clay bricks, Tests on bricks, Bricks for special use -
Refractory bricks, Cement Concrete blocks, Lightweight
concrete blocks; Timber - Classification of timber, structure of

timber, seasoning of timber, Defects on timber. Modern
materials: Glass, Aluminum, Ceramics, Sealants for joints,
Geosynthetics.
Practical Components
Testing of clay brick for water absorption and compressive
strength.
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Unit II Construction Materials and Building Finishes
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Construction Materials: Constituents of cement and their significance,
Manufacturing of Cement, Heat of hydration, types of cement.
Aggregates- size and shape, gradation, fineness modulus, bulking of
sand. Mortar - mix proportions and compressive strength of mortars for

masonry.
Building Finishes: Plastering –Types; Painting –constituents- Types–
characteristics, Varnish, Damp proofing -causes and effects of dampness,
methods of damp proofing.
Testing of Fineness, consistency, initial and final setting time of Ordinary
Portland Cement
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Unit III Concrete Mix Design and Fresh Concrete
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1 Ingredients, Manufacturing process, Properties of fresh
concrete –Workability- slump test, compaction factor, Vee
Bee Consistometer, segregation, bleeding; Mix Design -
Concrete mix design by I.S. method.

Test on Workability of concrete-Slum cone, Flow table test
and Vee Bee Consitometer.
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Unit IV Hardened Concrete
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1 Hardened Concrete: Water / Cement ratio – Abram’s Law –
Gel space ratio. Properties of hardened concrete- Factors
affecting strength of concrete– Strength in compression,
tension and flexure. Relation between compression, tensile,

flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete
.Shrinkage and creep of concrete.
Testing of Hardened concrete properties - Compressive
strength, Split tensile strength and Flexural strength.
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Building Material
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Building Material
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1 – Materials use for construction of buildings,
highways, bridges, mostly infrastructure
– Any material which is used for construction

purpose is called as building material
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INTRODUCTION
 All The engineering Structures are made from some materials
 These materials are know as engineering materials; building

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materials or materials of Construction
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 No material, existing in the universe is useless. Every material

has its own field of application
 An engineer has to be familiar with the properties of most of them
 Stone, bricks, timber, steel, lime, cement, and metals are some
commonly used materials by a civil engineer
 In order to carry out safe constructions, some standards for the
materials to be used are fixed
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Rock and Stone
 Rock: is the term used to name a

solid portion of the earth's crust.
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 It has no definite shape and
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chemical composition.
 It is generally very big in site.
 The rocks have one or more than

one materials.
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 Stone: The stone is always
obtained from rock, The rock
quarried from quarries is
called stone
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 Quarried stone may be in form
of stone blocks, Stone

aggregate, stone slabs, etc .
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ROCKS AND STONES
Why are we studying about stones and rocks?

 Most of the fort - worldwide,
 Taj Mahal, Pyramids of Egypt, The great wall of China,
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 Used as aggregate in concrete
Why stone become obsolete?

 Difficulties in transportation & dressing-consumes a lot of
time-slow pace of construction
 Lost importance with advancement of cement & steel
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CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Geological
Igneous-rocks are of volcanic origin
Sedimentary-stratified rocks-consolidation of sediments
Metamorphic-transformation of rocks due to pressure
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1  Physical
Stratified-layered rocks
Un-stratified-no stratification
Foliated-folded rocks
 Chemical
Argillaceous- clay(Al2O3) is the principal constituent. slate, laterite
Siliceous- silica(SiO2) is the principal constituent. Granite, basalt, gnesis,
quartzite, etc
Calcareous- lime is the principal constituent. Limestone, marble
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ROCK CYCLE
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GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Basalt
Igneous Rocks
9/  Igneous rocks are formed from

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 They are mostly crystalline (made

up of interlocking crystals) and
usually very hard to break
 E.g., Granite, Pumice, Basalt etc.,
Pumice
Granite
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Sedimentary Rocks
 Rocks formed by accumulation, compaction
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and consolidation of sediments
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 Sediments - particles produced from decay &
weathering of pre-existing rocks
E.g., Sandstone - Limestone - Shale -
Conglomerate
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Metamorphic rocks
 MR arise from the transformation
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called metamorphism, which
means "change in form“
 The original rock is subjected to

tremendous heat and pressure,
causing deep physical and/or
chemical change
Ex: Gneiss, Slate, Marble, Schist and

Quartzite
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Physical Classification of Rocks
Based on the structure of rock it can be classified into
 Stratified rock
 Un stratified rock
9/  Foliated rock
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Stratified Rocks
• It can be easily split along the planes
• Example: Sandstone, Limestone, kankar etc.
Un stratified Rocks
• Do not exhibit any definite layer or strata
• Example: Granite
Foliated Rocks
• These rocks have a tendency to split in a particular direction only. It
is common in metamorphic rocks.
• Example: Marble, Slate etc.
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Physical Classification of Rocks
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STRATAFIED ROCK
FOLIATED ROCK
UN -STRATAFIED ROCK
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Chemical Classification of Rocks
This classification depends upon the chief constituent mineral of the

rock. Chemically, rocks are classified into three categories
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Argillaceous Rocks
1 • The chief constituent of argillaceous rocks is clay (Alumina)
• Slate and laterite belongs to this category
Siliceous Rocks:
• The chief constituent of siliceous rocks is sand (Silica)
• Quartzite and Granite come under this category
Calcareous Rock
• The chief constituent of calcareous rocks is lime
• Lime stone and marble stone belong to this category
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Dressing of stones
A dress for stones ???
 A quarried stone has rough surfaces, which are dressed to obtain a
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 Dressing has to be done before seasoning
1) Better weather resistant
 Fresh cut stone has carries some natural moisture - quarry fluid
 When quarry fluid evaporates, it leaves crystalline film

 Seasoning - 6 to 12 months
 So dressing before seasoning improves the weather resistance
2) Less weight for transportation
3) Pleasing appearance
 Stone dressing tools - Wedge, Hammer, Chisel, Pick
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Dressing of stones
Stone Dressing describes the working of the cut stone into a
smoothed dimension stone, normally for keystones
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Dressing of stones
Dressed Stone Types
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PUNCHED
SPARROW PICKED
ROCK OR TOOLED
QUARRY FACED
SAWN
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Dressing of stones
Dressing tools
9/ MASH HAMMER FACE HAMMER
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MACHINE DRESSING CHESIL & HAMMER
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Uses of stones (Stone as building material)
Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:
Stone masonry is used for the construction of - foundations, walls, columns and arches
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Stone slabs - used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials
For good appearance are used for the face works of buildings
Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face works
Stones - used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings
Stones – used for piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls
Crushed stones with gravel are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with tar
they form finishing coat
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Characteristics & Qualities of good building stone
 The stone should be easily and economically obtainable in bulk
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 The stone should be hard, strong and durable
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1  It should weather well
 It should have fine compact texture

 It should be capable to withstand the effects of smoke and acidic

atmosphere
 The stone should be free from soft patches, defects, cavities and cracks
 It should be well seasoned and easily workable.
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Characteristics of good building stone
Appearance - fine texture, light colored stone - more durable

Structure - surface should be free from cracks, cavity & soft materials
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/2 Strength - strong & durable. Compression strength - 60 to 200 N/mm2
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Weight - For dams- retaining wall -heavyweight stones and for arches,
domes-light weight stones
Toughness - measure of impact that a stone can withstand

Seasoning - well seasoned
Weathering - resistance of stone against wear & tear due to natural
agent
Workability - should be workable-cutting, dressing, etc.,
Porosity & Absorption - permissible water absorption
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TESTING OF STONES
1. Acid Test - atmospheric action can be resisted by stone.

2. Smith's Test - presence of soluble matter in stones.
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4. Water Absorption Test - Percentage of the water absorption
5. Impact Test - determine the toughness of stone

6. Freezing And Thawing Test – freezing & thawing condition
7. Microscopic Test - microscopic examination
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Acid Test
 Acid test is used to investigate how much
atmospheric action can be resisted by stone.
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/2  In this test 100 grams of stones in chipped
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form are kept in a 5% solution of hydrochloric
acid or sulphuric acid.
 After 3 days stones in chipped form are taken

out and dried.
 If the edges of stones are sharp as earlier, it

indicates that stone can resist weathering
actions.
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Smith's Test
 This test is used for finding out the presence of soluble matter in
9/ stones.
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/2  In this test few sample of stones are place in a glass filled with
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clean water.
 Stones are kept in water for 1 hour. After the glass is vigorously
shaken.
 Due to presence of earthy material and clay impurities water is

converted to dirty water.
 Slightly cloudiness of water will prove that the stones are good and
durable.
 If water becomes too dirty, it indicates that stone contains too
much soluble impurities and it is not suitable for construction.
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Crushing Strength
Crushing test is used to investigate the compressive
strength of stone
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Sides of cube are finely dressed and finished
 Cubes of stones are then kept in water for 72 hours.
 Load is applied axially on load bearing surface using

universal testing machine or crushing testing machine
until cracks appear on the stone or stone starts
crushing.
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Water Absorption Test
9/  In this test, 50 grams of stones in chipped form are places in an oven at

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 Weight of stones is then taken (W1)

 Then stones are places in distilled water for 3 days.
 After 3 days weight of stones is taken (W2).
1% to 2% in road surface
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Impact Test
This test is carried out to determine the
toughness of stone. This test requires an 'Impact
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In this test stones are filled in test cylinder of
diameter 25 mm and height 25 mm.
The cylinder is placed on machine and steel

hammer of weight 20 N is allowed to fall on the
specimen in cylinder.
 The height of first fall is 1 cm, height of second

fall is 2 cm and so on.
The height at which specimen breaks is

recorded. If specimen breaks at 'n cm' then 'n' is
the toughness index of stone.
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Freezing And Thawing Test
Stone specimen is kept immersed in water
for 24 hours
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1 It is then placed in a freezing machine at -12
degC for 24 hours
Then it is thawed or warmed at atmospheric

temperature
This should be done in shade to prevent any

effect due to wind, sun rays, rain etc
This procedure is repeated several times

and the behaviour of stone is carefully
observed
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Microscopic Test
The sample of the test is subjected to microscopic examination. The
9/ sections of stones are taken and placed under the microscope to study the
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 Average grain size

 Existence of pores
 Mineral constituents
 Nature of cementing material
 Presence of any harmful substance
 Texture of stones etc.
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Deterioration and Preservation of stone work
 Deterioration of stone is the process of their breaking or their decay
9/  Atmospheric agencies such as : rain, temperature, wind, frost and living

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them
 So, the stones which can resist the effect of all these agencies are said to
be durable.
 Some preservative materials which are used to preserve the stones from
deterioration are: coal tar, linseed oil, barium hydrate solution, alum soap
solution.
 By applying some of above preservative materials, stones can be

preserved from decaying.
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BUILDING MATERIALS - BRICKS
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BRICKS
 Manufacture of bricks is mostly a village industry

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1  Bricks have been used all over the world in every class and kind of
building.
 The Great Wall of China was made of both burnt and sun dried bricks
 The cost of construction work is less with bricks

 Bricks resist fire and, hence, they do not easily disintegrate
 The atmospheric effects are resisted by bricks of good quality
 Bricks are obtained by molding clay in the rectangular blocks of uniform
size and then by drying and burning these blocks
 Bricks are very popular as they are easily available, economical, strong,
durable & reliable.
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Structural Clay Products
 Clay is one of the most important structural material.
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clay), slag, sawdust, etc.
 Clay bricks have pleasing appearance, strength and durability whereas
clay tiles used for light-weight partition walls and floors possess high
strength and resistance to fire.
 Clay pipes on account of their durability, strength, lightness and
cheapness are successfully used in sewers, drains.
 Clay products - Bricks, Tiles, Pipes, Terracotta, Earthenware, Stone
ware, Porcelain.
 Basic procedure: Moulding, Drying, & Burning.
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Chamette
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quartz
sand sawdust
slag
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Earthen wares
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Terracotta
Porcelain.
Stone wares
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Bricks
 Brick - Popular,
oldest (used because of its durability),
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cheapest, strength, reliability and
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 Brick - Rectangular in shape
size-that can be conveniently handled in one hand
 Brick - Made of, Burnt clay, or mixture of sand and lime, or Portland
cement
 Brick - 3 to 3.5 kg weight; Frog- 1-2 cm deep on 9 cm high
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Bricks
 Brick – uses - exterior & interior walls, partitions, piers, footings and
other load bearing structures.
 Brick – size of a brick – 19cm X 9cm X 9cm.
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size of brick includes the mortar thickness.
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Ingredients & functions of good brick earth
Ingredients In - % Functions If in Excess
To retain shape, impart

9/ Silica 50-60 durability, prevents shrinking & Brittle & weak on burning
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Alumina 20-30 Absorbs water, imparts plasticity Cracks in brick on drying

Lime 10 Reduces shrinkage on drying, Brick melts & losses its shape
causes silica to melt on burning
Gives red color on burning. During burning excess oxygen –

dark brown or black color.
Ferric oxide <7 Improves impermeability,
durability, strength & hardness Excess ferric oxide – dark blue
color.
Magnesia <1 Reduces bending Makes brick yellow on burning
Alkalis < 10 Imparts flexibility Efflorescence
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Characteristics of good bricks
 Size and shape - Regular shape and uniform size
 Color - uniform deep red, cherry red

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not show holes, lumps of lime etc.
 Hardness and soundness - no impression - scratched by finger nail,
metallic sound.
 Water absorption - not more that 20% of dry weight after 24 hrs.
 Crushing strength - not less than 10.5 N/mm2
 Brick earth - should be free from stones, dust, organic matter etc.,
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Classification of bricks
 Unburnt or sun dried bricks
9/  These are dried under sunlight.

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 It is also used for filling works.
 Burnt bricks
 First class bricks

 Second class bricks
 Third class bricks
 Fourth class bricks
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First class bricks
Thoroughly burnt with deep red, cherry or copper color
Smooth surface, sharp edges

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No impression – when a scratch is made by finger nail
Water absorption – 12 to 15% of dry weight

Fractured surface should not show lumps of lime
When two bricks are struck – metallic or ringing sound
Crushing strength not less than 10 MPa
These bricks are used for exposed face in masonry structure,
floorings, reinforced brick work and superior work of
permanent nature.
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Second class bricks
Same requirement as first class brick except,
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 Crushing strength not less than 7 MPa
 Uses - all masonry works, centering for reinforced bricks and R.C.C
structures
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Third class bricks
 Under burnt
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 Produces dull sound when struck
 Water absorption is about 25%
 Used for unimportant and temporary

structures and at places where rainfall is not
heavy.
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Fourth class bricks
Over burnt, irregular shape, brittle in nature

9/ and dark color
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1 floors, and as ballast in roads, etc.
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MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS
 The process of manufacturing of bricks from clay involves preparation
of clay, moulding and then drying and burning of brick
9/  The bricks are building materials which are generally available as

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 The bricks do not require any dressing and brick laying is very simple
compared to stone masonry
Site selection for manufacturing of bricks
 The ground should be of plain surface

 The site should be connected with communicating roads for transporting
materials etc.,
 Good brick earth should be easily available
 The site should offer all facilities to the workers
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The process of manufacturing of bricks
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 Preparation of brick earth
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 Moulding of bricks
 Drying of bricks
 Burning of bricks
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The process of manufacturing of bricks

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PREPARATION OF BRICK EARTH
Removal of loose soil

The top layer of the loose soil about 30 cm depth contains a lot of
impurities
like organic matter and hence it should be taken out and thrown away.
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/2 Digging, spreading and cleaning
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The earth is then dig out from the ground. This earth is spread into heaps
about 50 to 150 cm height.
Weathering
The earth is then exposed to atmosphere for softening. The period may be
of few weeks to a season.
Blending and Tempering

 The clay is then mixed with suitable ingredients.
 It is carried out by taking a small portion of clay every time and by
turning it up and down in vertical direction
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MOULDING
Hand moulding
 When moulding is done with hand it is called hand moulding.
 A wooden rectangular mould made in the shape of a brick is normally
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Machine moulding Manufacturing

 The clay is placed in the machine, it ( Machine Moulding)
comes out through the opening under
pressure.
 It is cut to bricks by steel wires fixed
into frames.
 These bricks are also called wire cut
bricks.
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DRYING OF BRICKS
After molding process the bricks contain

some amount of moisture in it. So, drying is to
be done otherwise they may cracked while
9/ burning. The drying of raw bricks is done by
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Wet brick from molding or cutting machines
contain 7 to 30 percent moisture, depending
upon the forming method.
Before the firing process begins, most of this

water is evaporated in dryer chambers at
temperatures ranging from about (38 ºC to 204
ºC).
The extent of drying time, which varies with

different clays, usually is between 24 to 48
hours.
Heat and humidity must be carefully

regulated to avoid cracking in the brick.
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Burning of bricks
The dried bricks are burned either in clamps

(small scale) or kilns (large scale) up to certain
degree temperature.
9/
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/2 In this stage, the bricks will gain hardness
1 and strength so it is important stage in
manufacturing of bricks.
The temperature required for burning is

about 1100oC. If they burnt beyond this limit

they will be brittle and easy to break.
If they burnt under this limit, they will

not gain full strength and there is a chance to
absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Hence burning should be done properly to

meet the requirements of good brick.
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Testing of Bricks
 Various types of tests on bricks are conducted to check the qualities of bricks
for construction purposes.
 Tests on bricks are conducted at construction site as well as in laboratory.

9/
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/2  To produce good quality of structure, good quality materials are required.
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 To decide the quality of the materials some tests are to be conducted on bricks.
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The tests which are required to find the suitability of bricks for construction
purposes are discussed below.
 Absorption test
 Crushing strength test
 Hardness test
 Shape and size
 Colour test
 Soundness test
 Structure of brick
 Presence of soluble salts (Efflorescence Test)
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Absorption Test on Bricks
Absorption test is conducted on

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under extreme conditions.
 In this test, sample dry bricks are

taken and weighed.
After weighing these bricks are

placed in water with full immersing for
24 hours.
The brick should not exceed 20% of

weight of dry brick.
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Crushing Strength or Compressive
Strength Test on Bricks
9/ Crushing strength of bricks is determined by

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/2 placing brick in compression testing machine.
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 After placing the brick in compression testing

machine, apply load on it until brick breaks.
Note down the value of failure load and find

out the crushing strength value of brick.
Minimum crushing strength of brick is

3.50N/mm2.if it is less than 3.50 N/mm2, then it
is not useful for construction purpose.
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Hardness Test on Bricks
A good brick should resist scratches

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So, for this test a sharp tool or finger
nail is used to make scratch on brick.
 If there is no scratch impression on

brick then it is said to be hard brick.
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Shape and Size Test on Bricks
Shape and size of bricks are very important
consideration.
9/
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/2 All bricks used for construction should be of same size.
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The shape of bricks should be purely rectangular with

sharp edges.
Standard brick size consists length x breadth x height

as 19cm x 9cm x 9cm.
To perform this test, select 20 bricks randomly from

brick group and stack them along its length, breadth and
height and compare.
So, if all bricks similar size then they are qualified for
construction work.
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Colour Test of Bricks
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A good brick should
possess bright and uniform
colour throughout its body.
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Soundness Test of Bricks
Soundness test of bricks shows the

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In this test, 2 bricks are chosen
randomly and struck with one another.
 Then sound produced should be clear

bell ringing sound and brick should not
break. Then it is said to be good brick.
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Structure of Bricks
To know the structure of brick,

9/ pick one brick randomly from the
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/2 group and break it.
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Observe the inner portion of

brick clearly.
 It should be free from lumps and

homogeneous.
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Efflorescence Test on Bricks
A good quality brick should not contain any
soluble salts in it.
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If soluble salts are there, then it will cause
efflorescence on brick surfaces.
To know the presence of soluble salts in a

brick, placed it in a water bath for 24 hours and

dry it in shade.
After drying, observe the brick surface

thoroughly.
If there is any white or grey colour deposits,

then it contains soluble salts and not useful for
construction.
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Bricks for Special Use
Refractory bricks or Fire bricks
 If the bricks made of fire clay is called as Refractory bricks or Fire clay
bricks.
9/
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1  Capable of resisting very high temp up to 1700oC.
 The process of manufacturing of brick is same, burnt at very high
temperatures in special kilns.
 Ingredients:
 Silica – 55-75%
 Alumina – 20-35%
 Iron oxide – 2-5%
 Lime – 1%
 The raw materials used for the manufacture of fire bricks consist of flint
clay and grog clay.
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1
flint clay
Grog clay
70
9/
23
/2
1
Boilers, chimneys, Lining blast furnace, kilns, Building cooking

chamber in wood fired ovens, wood heaters’ lining, Industrial
furnaces etc.,
71
Refractory Bricks
 Types:
 Acidic Refractory bricks – silica bricks
9/
23  Basic refractory bricks – magnesia bricks
/2  Neutral refractory bricks – chromite bricks (50% chrome & 30% iron)
1
 Properties:
• Whitish yellow or light brown
• Water absorption 4 – 10%

• Comp. strength 150 to 200 N/mm2
USES
 Boilers, chimneys
 Lining blast furnace, kilns,
 Building cooking chamber in wood fired ovens, wood heaters’ lining,
Industrial furnaces etc.,
72
Uses of Bricks
Bricks - Construction of walls
9/
23
/2
Bricks - Construction of chimneys & special works.
1
Bricks - Construction of compound walls, columns etc.,
Broken pieces of bricks are used as aggregates in concrete.
Bricks with holes – multi-storied framed structures.

Fire bricks – Fire clay – Refractory material.
Sand-lime bricks – Ornamental work.
Bricks of superior quality – Facing of a wall.
73
Cement & Concrete Blocks
Cement and Concrete blocks are also used as
alternative materials for masonry construction.
9/
23
/2
1
74
Types of blocks
 Solid blocks
 Hollow blocks
9/
23  Cellular blocks
/2
1
75
Advantages on using Cement/Concrete Blocks
 Less mortar
9/  Less dead weight
23
/2
1
 Less time required
 Less cost
 Thermal acoustic
 No real need for plastering

 Environment friendly
Disadvantages on using Cement/ Concrete Blocks

Cracks will be wider and larger
Shrinkage due to the movement of moisture
76
Cellular Light Weight Concrete Blocks
Cellular Lightweight Concrete (CLC) also
known as Foamed concrete.
9/
23
/2
1 Foamed concrete is manufactured by mixing
Portland cement, sand, fly ash, water and
preformed foam in varied proportions.
Advantages
Lightweight, Fire resistant, Thermal insulation ,

Sound absorption and Acoustical Insulation,
Environmental Friendly, Cost-efficient and
resistant towards freezing issues.
77
1
/2
9/
23
Timber
78
Timber:-
• The Wood which is used for structural or carpentry
purpose is known as Timber.
• The old name of Timber is ‘timbrian’ which means to
9/
23
/2
build.
1 • Timber or wood as a building material possesses a low
heat conductivity, amenability to mechanical working, low
bulk density and relatively high strength.
• Initially it has been extensively used as beams, columns

and plates in construction and also used for foundation,
flooring, stairs and roofing.
• Even today its use as a building material is quite popular,
though it has to face tough competition from structural
steel and reinforced concrete.
79
Classification of trees:-
Trees are classified into two types, namely,
9/ 1) Endogenous.
23
/2 2) Exogenous.
1
1) Endogenous:-
• The trees which grow inwards in longitudinal fibrous
mass is known as Endogenous trees.

• Having very less branches.
• The timber from these trees has very limited engineering
applications.
• The examples of endogenous trees are bamboo, cane,
palm, etc.
80
1
9/
/2
23
81
Exogenous:-
• These trees increase in bulk by growing outwards and
9/
distinct consecutive rings are formed in the horizontal
23
/2
section of such trees.
1 • These rings are known as annual rings, because one
such ring is added every year.
• Such trees grow bigger in diameter as well.
• The timber, which is mostly used for engineering

purposes belongs to this category.
The exogenous trees are further classified as:
1) Conifers.
2) Deciduous.
82
1
9/
/2
23
83
Conifers:- The conifers are known as evergreen trees.
These trees bear cone or needle shaped leaves. These
trees yield soft woods, which are generally light in colour,
9/
23 resinous, light in weight and weak. Eg:- deodar, pine and
/2
1 other conifers
84
1
9/
/2
23
85
Deciduous:- They are also known as broad leaf trees.
Timber for engineering work is mostly derived from
deciduous trees. Hard woods include sal, mahogany,
9/
23 teak, oak, etc.
/2
1
86
1
9/
/2
23
87
Structure of trees:-
From the visibility aspect, the structure can be divided
9/ into two categories:
23
/2 1) Macrostructure
1
2) Microstructure
1) Macrostructure:-
The structure of wood visible to the eye or at a small

magnification is called a macrostructure. The following
are the different components.
• Pith: The pith or medulla is the innermost part, seen only
in the early ages of trees. Wood of this zone is of black,
brown or grey appearance. It is normally found in the first
year of growth of the tree.
88
1
9/
/2
23
89
• Heart wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith
constitute the heartwood. It indicates the dead portion of
the tree. It does not take active part in the growth of a
9/
23 tree. However, it imparts rigidity to the tree and, hence,
/2
1 forms durable timber for engineering purposes.
• Sap wood: The sap wood comprises of new and lighter
cells that line nearer to the skin of the tree.
It indicates recent growth. It takes active part in the

growth of a tree.
• Cambium: The thin layer of wood between the sap wood
and the inner bark is known as cambium layer. If the bark
is removed for any reason, the cambium layer gets
exposed and results in the death of the tree.
90
1
9/
/2
23
91
• Bark: It is the outermost zone and makes the skin of the
tree. The function of the bark is to protect the inner tissue
from heat, rain and injury. Sometimes a second thin
9/
23 membrane is also present inside the bark and it is called
/2
1 the inner bark.
• Medullary rays: The thin radial fibres extending from the
pith to the cambium is known as medullary rays. The
function of it is to hold together the annual rings of hard

wood and sap wood.
92
Microstructure:-
• The structure of the wood apparent only at great
9/
magnification is called microstructure.
23 • A living cell consists of four parts, namely membrane,
/2
1
protoplasm, sap and core.
• The cells according to their function are classified into
conductive cells, mechanical and storage cells.
• The conductive cells serve mainly to transmit nutrients

from the roots to the branches and leaves.
• The mechanical cells impart strength to the wood and the
storage cells serve to store and transmit nutrients to the
living cells.
93
Seasoning of Timber:-
• Wood from freshly felled trees cannot be used in
construction because it contains more moisture and is
9/
23
undesirable in many accounts.
/2
1 • The water is to be removed before the timber can be
used for any engineering purpose.
• This process of drying out the timber is known as
seasoning of timber.
• The moisture should be extracted during seasoning
under controlled conditions at a uniform rate from all
parts of the timber.
• The remaining moisture, which cannot be extracted,
should be uniformly distributed throughout the mass.
94
The major objectives of seasoning are as follows:-
• To reduce the weight of the timber.
9/
• To increase the strength, stiffness and durability of the
23
/2 timber.
1
• To make the timber easily workable.
• To reduce the tendency of timber to crack, shrink and
warp.
• To make the timber fit for receiving treatment of paints,

varnishes, etc.
• To make the timber safe from the attack of fungi and
insects.
• To allow the timber to burn readily if used as a fuel.
95
Methods of Seasoning:-
The two main methods of seasoning of wood are
9/
• Natural seasoning
23
/2 • Artificial seasoning
1
Natural seasoning:-
• In this method, the seasoning of timber is carried out by natural air
hence, it is referred to as air seasoning.
• Stacking of timber is done very carefully as to allow free circulation

of air between the individual pieces.
• The stack is to be protected from fast blowing wind, rain and extreme
heat by providing a suitable roof.
• Loss of moisture from wood is by the simple process of evaporation.
• This method of seasoning is cheap and simple and does not require
skilled supervision, but the drying of different surfaces may not be
even and uniform.
• The process is very slow and may take 1–4 years for seasoning.
96
1
9/
/2
23
97
Artificial seasoning:-
1) Boiling:
9/
• In this method, the timber is immersed in water and the
23
/2 water is then boiled.
1
• This is a very quick method, but it affects the elasticity
and strength of wood and also this method proves to be
costly.
2) Chemical seasoning:
• In this method, the timber is immersed in a solution of
suitable salt.
• It is then taken out and seasoned in the ordinary way.
Here the chances of formation of external cracks are
reduced.
98
1
9/
/2
23
99
3) Electrical seasoning:
• In this method, high frequency alternating current is
9/
used.
23
/2
• The resistance of timber against electricity is measured
1
at every interval of time.
• When the required resistance is reached seasoning,
process is stopped because resistance of timber
increases by reducing moisture content in it.

• This is also known as rapid method of seasoning, but it is
uneconomical as the initial and maintenance cost is very
high.
4) Water seasoning: It is the process in which timber is immersed
in water flow which helps to remove the sap present in the timber. It
will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and after that the timber is allowed to
dry.
• however, it weakens the timber and makes it brittle.
100
1
9/
/2
23
101
5) Kiln seasoning:
• In this method, the drying is carried out inside an air tight
9/
chamber or oven. Depending upon the mode of
23
/2
construction and operation, the kilns are of two types,
1 namely, stationary kilns and progressive kilns.
• In a stationary kiln, the process of seasoning is carried
out in a single compartment only.
• This kiln adopted for seasoning timber, which requires a

close control of humidity and temperature. It gives better
results.
• In a progressive kiln, the carriage with timber sections
travels from one end of the kiln to the other and the hot
air is applied from the discharging end. It is used for
seasoning timber on a large scale.
102
1
9/
/2
23
103
1
9/
/2
23
104
DEFECTS IN TIMBER:
In timber the defects will occur because of the following five
9/
reasons.
23
/2 1) Due to improper Conversion
1
• Chip mark defects
• Wane defects
• Torn Grain defects

• Diagonal Grain defects
2) Due to Fungi
• Blue stain defects
• Sap stain defects
• Wet rot defects
• Dry rot defects
105
1
9/
/2
23
106
1
9/
/2
23
107
3) Due to Insects
• Beetles
9/
• Termites
23
/2 • Marine borers
1
4) Due to Natural forces
• Burls
• Callus
• Dead Wood
• Chemical Stain
5) Due to improper / defective Seasoning
• Bow
• Cup
• Honey-Combing
• Warp
108
1
9/
/2
23
109
Common timber used for building work:-
1) Teak:-
9/
• Teak forms one of the most valuable timber types of the
23
/2 world.
1
• It is durable, fire resistant and moderately hard. It takes
up good polish.
• It is not attacked by white ants and dry rot.
• Its colour is deep yellow to dark brown.

• It is suitable for ship building, making fine furniture and
in building construction.
2) Sal:-
• Sal is also one among the valuable trees.
• It resembles teak in several aspects.
• It is hard, fibrous and close grained.
110
• It does not take up a good polish.
• It is durable under ground and under water also. It
9/
requires careful and slow seasoning.
23 • It is used for railway sleepers, bridges, structural work,
/2
1
etc.
3) Rosewood or black wood:-
• It is dark in colour. It is strong, tough and close grained.
• It is handsome and takes up a good polish.

• It maintains its shape well and is available in large sizes.
• It is used for furniture of superior quality, cabinet work,
ornamental carvings, etc.
111
1
9/
/2
23
112
4) Babul:-
• It is one of the common trees in India, growing in all parts
9/ of the country.
23
/2 • It is strong, hard, very durable and tough.
1
• Its colour is whitish red. It takes up a good polish.
• Its structural uses include use as beams and rafters in
ordinary type buildings and also for fabrication of door

and window frames and lintels.
• Babul is used for making cartwheels and bodies, tools
and handles for agricultural instruments like ploughs.
113
1
9/
/2
23
114
5) Jack:-
• Its colour is yellow when freshly cut and it darkens with
9/ age.
23
/2 • It is compact, even grained and moderately strong. It is
1
easy to work with and takes a good finish.
• It maintains its shape well. It is used for making plain
furniture, door panels, boat construction, cabinets,
musical instruments, etc.

6) Mango:-
• Its colour is deep grey and is easy to work with.
• It is moderately strong. It is practically found all over
India.
• It is used for making cheap furniture, toys, packing
boxes, ship building, cabinets, etc.
115
7) Deodar:-
• It is the most important tree providing soft wood.
9/
• Its colour is yellowish brown.
23
/2 • It is strongly scented, oily, and very durable and takes
1
polishes well. It is moderately strong.
• It possesses distinct annual rings. It is used for making
cheap and rough furniture, railway carriages, railway
sleepers, packing boxes, etc.

8) Bamboo:-
• It is an endogenous tree. It is flexible, strong and durable.
• It is found in most parts of the country.
• It is used for scaffolding, thatched roofs, rafters,
temporary bridges, fancy goods, etc.
116
1
9/
/2
23
117
9) Mahogany:-
• Its colour is shining reddish brown. It takes a good polish.
9/
• It is easy to work and is durable under water.
23
/2 • It is used for making furniture, cabinets, ornamental
1
panelling, fancy goods, etc.
10) Palm:-
• It contains ripe wood in the outer crust.

• The colour of this ripened wood is dark brown. It is strong
and durable.
• Used in house walls, rafters and roofing etc.,
118
Properties of good timber are:-
• Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should
9/
exhibit a hard and shining appearance.
23
/2 • Colour: The colour of the timber should be preferably
1
dark. A light colour indicates low strength.
• Hardness: A good timber should be hard, i.e., it should
offer resistance when it is being penetrated by another
body. The chemical present in heartwood and the density

of wood imparts hardness to timber.
• Durability: A good timber should be durable. It should be
capable of resisting the action of fungi, insects,
chemicals etc.,
• Strength: A good timber should be strong for working as
a structural member such as joist, beams and rafter. It
should be capable of taking loads slowly or suddenly.
119
• Structure: The structure should be uniform and the
medullary rays should be hard and compact. The annual
rings should be regular and should be closely located.
9/
23
/2
• Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate
1
easily due to mechanical wear or abrasion. This property
is essential for places where timber would be subjected
to traffic, like wooden floors and pavements.
• Toughness: A good timber should be tough. It should be

capable of offering resistance to shocks due to vibrations.
• Elasticity: This is the property by which the timber
returns to the original shape when load causing
deformation is removed. This property is essential when
timber is used for bows, carriage shaft, etc.
• Fire resistance: Timber is a bad conductor of heat. A
dense wood offers good resistance to fire and it requires
sufficient heat to cause a flame. 120
• Defects: A good timber should be free from serious
defects.
• Fibres: Timber should have straight fibres.
9/
23 • Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining the
/2
1
shape during conversion or seasoning.
• Smell: A good timber should have a sweet smell.
• Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound

when struck.
• Weight: A timber with heavy weight is considered to be
sound and strong.
• Working condition: Timber should be easily workable. It
should not clog the teeth of saw and should be capable
of being easily planed or made smooth.
121
Applications:-
• It is used for door and window frames, shutters of doors
9/
and windows, roofing materials, etc.
23
/2
• It is used for formwork of cement concrete, centering of
1
an arch, scaffolding, etc.
• It is used for making furniture, agricultural instruments,
sport goods, musical instruments, etc.
• It is used for making railway coach wagons.

• It is used for making toys, engraving work, matches, etc.
• It is used for railway sleepers, packing cases, etc.
• It is used for temporary bridges and boat construction.
122
1
9/
/2
23
GLASS
123
Glass
9/
23
• Glass is a hard substance which may be
/2
1 transparent or translucent and brittle.
• The fusion process used to manufacture
glasses. In this process, sand is fused with

lime, soda, and some other admixtures
and then cooled rapidly.
124
Engineering Properties of Glass
9/
23
• Transparency
/2
1 • Strength
• Workability
• Transmittance
• U value
• Recycling property
125
• Transparency of Glass:Transparency is the
main property of glass which allows the vision of
9/
23 the outside world through it. The transparency of
/2
1 glass can be from both sides or from one side
only. In one side transparency, glass behaves
like a mirror from the other side.
• U value: The U-value is the measure of how

much heat is transferred through the window.
The lower the U-value the better the insulation
properties of the glass– the better it is at keeping
the heat or cold out.
126
• Strength: Glass is a brittle material but with the
advent of science and technology, certain
9/
23
laminates and admixtures can increase its
/2
1 modulus of rupture( ability to resist deformation
under load).
Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect

refers to circumstances where the short
wavelengths of visible light from the sun pass
through glass and are absorbed, but the longer
infrared re-radiation from the heated objects are
unable to pass through the glass. This trapping
leads to more heating and a higher resultant
temperature. 127
• Workability: It is capable of being worked in
9/ many ways. It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
23
/2
1
It is possible to obtain glass with diversified
properties- clear, colorless, diffused and stained.
Glass can also bewelded by fusion.
Recyclable: Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets

(Scraps of broken or waste glass gathered for
re-melting) are used as raw materials in glass
manufacture, as aggregates in concrete
construction etc.
128
• Float Glass: Types of Glass
• Float glass manufactured from
9/
23
sodium silicate and calcium silicate
/2
1 so, it is also called as soda-lime
glass. It is clear and flat, so it
causes glare.
• Thickness of the float glass is

available from 2mm to 20mm, and
its weight range from 6 to 36 kg/m2.
• The application of float glass
includes shop fronts, public places,
etc.
• It is used in making canopies, shop
fronts, glass blocks, railing
partitions, etc. 129
• Tinted Glass: Tinted glass is
nothing but colored glass. A color
9/ producing ingredients is mixed to the
23 normal glass mix to produce colored
/2
1 glass which does not affect other
properties of glass.
Colouring
Color
ion
Iron oxide Green
Sulphur Blue
Manganese
Black
dioxide
Cobalt Blue
Chromium Dark green
Yellowish
Titanium
brown
Uranium Yellow
130
• Laminated Glass:
• This type of glass is made by
9/
23 sandwiching glass panels within
/2
1 a protective layer.
• It is heavier than normal glass
and may cause optical
distortions as well. It is tough

and protects from UV radiation
(99%) and insulates sound by
50%.
• Used in glass facades,
aquariums, bridges, staircases,
floor slabs, etc.
131
• Shatterproof glass:
Shatterproof glass is used for
9/
23
/2
windows, skylights, floors,
1
etc. Some type of plastic
polyvinyl butyral is added in
its making process. So, it
cannot form sharp-edged

pieces when it breaks.
132
9/
23
/2 Extra clean glass:
1
• This type of glass is
hydrophilic i.e. The water
moves over them without
leaving any marks and

photocatylitic i.e. they are
covered with Nanoparticles
that attack and break dirt
making it easier to clean
and maintain.
133
• Toughened Glass
9/
23
• Toughened glass is a
/2
1 durable glass that has low
visibility. It is available in all
thicknesses, and when it is
broken it forms small

granular chunks that are
dangerous. This is also
called as tempered glass.
This type of glass is used for
fire-resistant doors, mobile
screen protectors, etc.
134
• Double Glazed Units: These are made
by providing air gap between two glass
panes in order to reduce the heat loss
9/
23 and gain. Normal glass can cause
/2
1 immense amount of heat gain and upto
30%of loss of heat of air conditioning
energy. Green, energy efficient glass
can reduce this impact.

• Glass wool: Glass wool is a thermal
insulation that consists of intertwined
and flexible glass fibers, which causes it
to "package" air, and consequently
make good insulating materials. Glass
wool can be used as filler or insulators
in buildings, also for soundproofing.
135
• Glass blocks: Hollow glass wall
blocks are manufactured as two
9/
23 separate halves and, while the
/2
1 glass is still molten, the two
pieces are pressed together and
annealed. The resulting glass
blocks will have a partial vacuum

at the hollow center. These are
used as architectural purpose in
the construction of walls,
skylights etc. They provide
aesthetic appearance when light
is passed through it.
136
Sealants for joints
9/
23
/2
1
137
Sealants for joints
9/
23
• Sealant is a material which
/2
1 is used to seal the joints
between materials such as
concrete, glass, aluminium,
masonry wall etc.

• In general joints are
provided in the structures
to prevent the damage
produced by stresses.
138
• Sealants are used in construction to prevent
fluids and other substances from passing
9/
23
/2
through material surfaces, joints, or openings.
1
• They can also prevent the passage of air, sound,
dust, insects, and so on, as well as acting as a
firestopping component.
• Sealants are typically used to close openings
between that are too small for other materials
such as concrete, timber or mortar to be used.
• They have a wide range of properties in terms of
strength, flexibility, appearance permanence,
solubility, corrosion resistance, and so on.
139
Basic functions of a sealant
9/
23
/2
1 • Fill a gap between two or more substrates.
• Form a barrier through which other
substances cannot pass.

• Maintain sealing properties for the
anticipated lifetime.
140
Properties of Good Sealant
9/ • The basic properties of a good sealant should be as
23
/2 follows.
1
• The sealant should have good bond with building
materials.
• The sealant should be soft.

• It should be flexible.
• It should not affected by the weather changes.
• It should strong against stress and stress relief cycle.
141
Types of Sealants Used for Joints in Buildings
9/
23
• There are several types of sealants are:
/2
1 • Silicone based sealants
• Urethane based sealants
• Acrylic based sealants
• Polysulphide based sealants

• Out of the above sealants, Polysulphide sealants
are more popular in construction world.
142
Polysulphide based Sealant
9/ • Polysulphide sealants are widely used because
23
/2
1 of good sealant properties.
• They are basically applied in cold conditions.
• Polysulphide sealants are available in two types
of systems:
• Two-part system
• One-part system
143
Two-part system
9/ • This system of sealant contains two

23
/2
1 parts called base and accelerator.
• To prepare a sealant these both
should be mixed. After mixing them
both react chemically and forms thick

paste.
• This paste should be used within 48
hours after mixing.
• After applying sealant it will take 8
days for full curing.
144
9/
23
• Two-part system Polysulphide sealant is
/2
1 available in two special forms namely, gun
grade and pour grade.
• Gun grade is used for inclined joints,

vertical joints and overhead joints while
pour grade is used for horizontal joints.
145
One-part system
9/
23
• One-part system contains premixed
/2
1 sealant which can be directly used without
any mixing.
• They are capable of absorbing moisture

form the atmosphere and reaction occurs.
• In this case full curing of sealant will take 3
to 4 weeks.
146
Uses of Polysulphide based Sealants
9/ • Building structures joints like basements, glazing

23
/2
1 frames, ceiling joints, floors, roofs, external
walls, cladding, retaining walls etc.
• Water retaining structures joints such as dams,
reservoirs, canal linings, culverts etc.

• Joints in bridges, roads, aerodromes etc.
147
1
9/
/2
23
Ceramics
148
Ceramics
9/ • Ceramics are a material often used in
23
/2
1 construction, made from a mixture of minerals,
typically silica sand, with a clay binder and some
impurities, and up to 30% water.
• They are fired at a higher temperature than

bricks, so that the silica re-crystallises to form a
glassy material that has greater density, strength
, hardness, resistance to chemicals and frost
and a greater dimensional stability.
149
9/ • During firing, the water is driven off, though this may be
23
/2 reduced from 30% to 2-5% by drying before firing.
1
• At this reduced water content products are moulded as
powder before being fired at 1,800-2,000 degrees for
days or weeks at a time, depending on the ceramic and
process details. Ceramics may have an as-fired

appearance or be glazed (a glass-like coating).
• These materials are environmentally stable - they will not
oxidise further in the atmosphere, therefore, they are
economical in terms of maintenance costs.
150
Properties
9/ • High melting points (so they're heat resistant).
23
/2 • Great hardness and strength.
1
• Considerable durability (they're long-lasting and hard-
wearing).
• Low electrical and thermal conductivity (they're good

insulators).
• Chemical inertness (they're unreactive with other
chemicals).
151
Types of ceramics
9/
23 • Fire clays and shales
/2
1 • Terracotta
• Faience
• Fireclay
• Stoneware
• Earthenware
• Vitreous china
• Porcelain
152
Types of ceramics
9/ • Fire clays
23
/2
1 • This contains a high proportion of clay resistant
to high temperatures (kaolin).
• It is used for chimney flue linings and firebricks.
153
• Terracotta
9/
• This is literally ‘burnt earth’.
23
/2
1
• It is made from yellow to brownish-red clays with
a uniformity and fineness between brick and
vitrified wall tiles.
• Terracotta is often used for unglazed chimney

pots, air bricks, copings and planters.
154
• Faience
• This is a glazed form of terra-cotta or
9/
23
stoneware.
/2
1 • The base material may be fired to the ‘biscuit’
stage before glazing and re-firing, or a ‘once-
fired’ process may be used.
• The latter improves resistance of the glaze to

crazing (the spread of lines or cracks on the
glazed surface), but reduces the range of
colours available.
155
• Stoneware
• This is similar in composition to fireclay, but is
9/
23
/2
fired at a higher temperature than fireclay and
1 contains a higher proportion of glass.
• As a result it is harder and less absorbent.
Modern manufacturing processes mean that
stoneware no longer has to be glazed for use in

drainage pipes.
156
• Earthenware
• The raw materials are blended and may contain
9/
23
/2 a considerable proportion of limestone.
1
• It is a finer product than stoneware and is used
as the body for glazed wall tiles and table ‘china
’. Water absorption may be up to 15%, however,

making it less suitable for sanitaryware than
vitreous china.
157
• Vitreous china
• This has a higher glass content than
earthenware, and its water absorption is only
9/
23
about 0.5%, which makes it suitable for sanitary
/2
1 fittings. It is stronger than earthenware.
158
• Porcelain
• Porcelain is very similar to vitreous china, but is
often made from purer materials under more
9/ strictly controlled conditions.
23
/2
1
• It is used for special uses, such as electrical
insulators.
159
1
9/
/2
23
Aluminium
160
Aluminium:-
• By mass, aluminium makes up about 8% of the Earth's
9/
crust and it is the third most abundant element
23
/2
after oxygen and silicon.
1 • Aluminum is a Non-ferrous metal and has limited use in
Engineering.
• Aluminum occurs in abundance in various forms such as
oxides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates, etc.

• But it is commercially produced mainly from bauxite
(Al2O3 2H2O).
161
USES OF ALUMINA:
• This Material is chiefly used for making parts of Aero
9/ plane, cooking utensils, electric wires, window frames,
23
/2 glazing bars, structural members, corrugated sheets,
1
posts and panels, bathroom fittings, precision surveying
instruments, furniture etc. Other uses are like
• Used as reducing agent in the manufacture of steel.
• Used for making Aluminum alloys, Automobile bodies,

Engine parts etc.
• Use in surgical instruments, and casting of steel.
• Used in the manufacture of electrical conductors.
• Used in the manufacture of paints in powder form.
162
ALUMINIUM AS BUILDING MATERIAL:
Aluminium is used as an important building material,
9/ especially in advanced countries. The following are the
23
/2 important properties of aluminium those make it useful as
1
a building material:
• Air tightness: A well designed aluminium door, window,
etc. is perfectly airtight and sealed for dust and rainwater
when closed. This is a very important advantage in a

modern air-conditioned building.
• Appearance: The finished aluminium will be having a
handsome appearance, and depending on the decorative
style of the building, shades of various colours can be
selected.
• Handling and transport cost: Aluminium is very light
and hence the handling and transport cost is very low.
163
• Ease in fabrication and assembly: As aluminium is
comparatively soft and ductile, the fabrication of doors,
9/
windows etc. can be easily carried out. An aluminium
23
/2
structure can easily be dismantled, transported and re-
1 erected in different locations.
• High corrosion resistance: Aluminium has excellent
corrosion resistance and it can resist weathering actions
as well.
• Noise control: Aluminium is an excellent reflector of
electromagnetic and sound waves. An aluminium
building is less affected by external noises as compared
to buildings made from other materials.
• Strong at Low Temperatures: Whereas steel becomes
brittle at low temperatures, aluminium increases in
tensile strength and retains excellent toughness.
164
The properties of aluminium are:
• It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
9/ • It is a silvery white metal with a bluish tinge and it
23
/2 exhibits bright luster on a freshly broken surface.
1
• It is rarely attacked by nitric acid, organic acid or water. It
is highly resistant to corrosion.
• It is light in weight, malleable and ductile.

• It is a soft metal.
• The melting point of aluminium is about 658 0C.
• It possesses great toughness and tensile strength.
• Its specific gravity is about 2.70.
• It dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
165
Geosynthetics
166
Introduction
• Depleting sources for granular and other elementary raw
materials, combined with the limited availability of funds for
projects, has been generating new opportunities for innovative
engineering to achieve cost-effective solutions
• One of those innovations is the introduction of geosynthetics

into the field of civil engineering
• Geosynthetics are considered as bona fide engineering

materials that not only are filling in for the scarce raw
materials like cement and steel, but also are turning out to be a
pretty sound and good alternative to the conventional designs
• Apart from being economical, they can be rapidly installed and

help in quality control of factory manufactured products
Introduction (Contd…)
• The use of geosynthetics is, though, still novel in the
construction industry, its use is nevertheless increasing every
year in sectors such as reinforcement of fill, management of
pore water pressure, foundations and pavements
• Geosynthetics or geosynthetic materials are nothing but planar,

polymeric (synthetic or natural) materials used in contact with
soil/rock and/or any other geotechnical material, for Filtration,

drainage, Separation, Reinforcement, Protection, Sealing and
Packing
168
Classification
169
Types
Types of Geosynthetics in Civil Engineering
 Geotextiles
 Geogrids
 Geonets
 Geomembranes
 Pre-fabricated vertical drains
 Geosynthetic clay liner
 Geocells
 Geocomposites
170
Types
171
Functions
Functions of Geosynthetics in Civil Engineering
 Soil reinforcement structure

 Basal reinforcement to support the soil reinforcement
structure
 Separation between the in-situ soil and the imported soil to
avoid mixing and reducing mechanical performance

 Filtration behind all hydraulic structures
 Drainage control at the top 8 m to collect any seepage water
coming from the other side of the embankment to avoid
contamination on the structural fill
 Erosion control blanket to protect the slope at the top and
avoid erosion
172
Uses
173
Uses (Contd..)
 Separation of Soil Layers
• Separation → a permeable barrier placed between subsoil and
coarse stone to maintain the bearing capacity of the hardcore
layer
• In order to keep the imported material separated from the in-

situ soil, a separating layer of geosynthetic is laid between the

geotechnical entities. This is done to keep the properties of the
imported material intact which otherwise could have altered
under the action of applied loads
• Depending upon the surrounding conditions, nonwoven

geotextile, geofoam and geocomposites can be laid in between
the imported material and the in-situ soil
174
Uses (Contd..)
• They are usually applied at subgrade/sub-base interfaces in
temporary and permanent roads, between rail-road blast and
foundation soil, and between embankment fill and soft
foundation soil
Separation function: (a) Without geotextile and (b) With geotextile
175
Uses (Contd..)
Separation
176
Uses (Contd..)
 Filtration of Water
• Filtration → Permit liquid to pass through its plane while
blocking the path of soil particles
• The mismanagement of water on site is capable of causing

extreme harm; erosion of soil in a particular area is one of the
most harmful repercussions that carelessness could lead
• It often results in the formation of irreparable gullies hence to

help prevent that from happening, a geocomposite clay liner
(GCL) is placed underneath all the hydraulic structures
• This is a costly option therefore to remain within budget, it is

also suggested to use nonwoven geotextile
177
Uses (Contd..)
 Filtration
Filtration function: (a) Without geotextile and

(b) With geotextile
178
Uses (Contd..)
 Filtration of Water
• Drainage (Fluid transmission) → transportation of liquid or gas
within its own plane to an outlet:- Transmissivity
• The mismanagement of water on site is capable of causing

extreme harm; erosion of soil in a particular area is one of the
most harmful repercussions that carelessness could lead
• It often results in the formation of irreparable gullies hence to

help prevent that from happening, a geocomposite clay liner
(GCL) is placed underneath all the hydraulic structures
• This is a costly option therefore to remain within budget, it is

also suggested to use nonwoven geotextile
179
Uses (Contd..)
 Drainage of Water
Geotextile drainage function
180
Uses (Contd..)
 Drainage Works
• Drainage (Fluid transmission) → transportation of liquid or gas
within its own plane to an outlet:- Transmissivity
• If water isn’t contained properly on the sides of, say an

embankment, an increase in the water table is observed that
further brings pore pressure into the play
• The increase in the pore pressure often requires a surplus

amount of reinforcement of about 50%. To avoid this,
geocomposite liner is installed usually at the back of the
reinforced structure with a perforated pipe at the bottom to
collect water
• The pipe is then connected to the hydraulic structures

181
Uses (Contd..)
 Drainage Works
• The type of geosynthetics used for drainage are geotextiles,
geotextile related products (specifi cally geonets), and
geocomposites (sandwich structures of geotextiles and
geonets)
Geotextile drainage function

182
Uses (Contd..)
 Soil Reinforcement
• The technology of soil reinforcement, using geosynthetics,
involves labor force to cut the geogrid to the required length,
place it on site
• Soil reinforcement is usually laid in one of the following

scenarios
 Soil bearing capacity is low or the layers are compressible
 Landslide-prone zone
 Excessive rutting
 Uneven settlements
183
Uses (Contd..)
 Soil Reinforcement (Contd..)
• It allows the steepening of the slope, enabling to maintain the
construction within the boundaries, as well as saving on
earthmoving and importing of soil
• The geogrids used are high-tensile polyester, encased in a

LLDPE (linear low-density polyethylene) coating to prevent

installation damage acting as primary reinforcement
• A secondary reinforcement in-between is given by a double-

twisted mesh. Where hydraulic structures were required, a
gabion face is used
184
Uses (Contd..)
Geotextiles reinforcing function
185
Uses (Contd..)
 Soil Reinforcement (Contd..)
• Basal reinforcement is provided at the foundation level of the
reinforced structure
• A standard penetration test is conducted to assess the soil’s
bearing capacity. If the bearing capacity comes out between 10
and 60 Kpa, basal reinforcement is provided in the form of
Geogrid reinforcement, which is laid out to counter for the
failure that could have occurred due to the un-drained shear

stress of the foundation
Placement pattern of basal reinforcement

186
Uses (Contd..)
187
Uses (Contd..)
188
Uses (Contd..)
 Soil Erosion Control (Contd..)
• Usually, gabions, geotextiles and mattresses are used for
erosion protection
• Furthermore, geotextile filter and geotextile reinforcement

ensure stability during saturation in the rainy season and
sudden drawdown conditions
• Nonwoven geotextiles act as filter separator, drains and

reinforcements
• An economical pre-formed unit made of double-twisted mesh

to provide primary reinforcement is used for erosion control
189
Uses (Contd..)
 Soil Erosion Control
Application of geotextiles in coastal erosion protection

190
Uses (Contd..)
 Soil Erosion Control
Application of geotextiles in coastal erosion protection
191
Uses (Contd..)
 Containment (fluid barrier) and protection
• The specific objective in containment is to prevent the
movement of fluids, mainly liquids, from a collection zone into
the neighbouring soil
• For this function, the most commonly used geosynthetic is an

impermeable plastic membrane, usually high density

polyethylene (HDPE), but polypropylene (PP) sheets, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC)-coated textiles, and non-woven geotextiles
impregnated with montmorillonite clay are also of interest
• However, generally where the fluid barrier function is in

evidence, a geotextile is present as a protection layer.
192
Uses (Contd..)
Illustrating protective function of geotextiles

193
Applications-Geogrids
• Uniaxial Geogrids
Biaxial Geogrids 194

Applications-Geonets
Geonets 195
Applications-Geomembranes
•
196
Applications-Geomembranes
197
Applications-Geopipes
198
Applications-Geocomposites
199
200
201

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GMR Institute of Technology, Rajam

Department of Civil Engineering

19CE302 Building Materials And Concrete Technology

concrete blocks; Timber - Classification of timber, structure of

sand. Mortar - mix proportions and compressive strength of mortars for

Concrete mix design by I.S. method.

tension and flexure. Relation between compression, tensile,

– Any material which is used for construction

 These materials are know as engineering materials; building

 No material, existing in the universe is useless. Every material

 An engineer has to be familiar with the properties of most of them

 Rock: is the term used to name a

 It is generally very big in site.

 The rocks have one or more than

of stone blocks, Stone

Why are we studying about stones and rocks?

Why stone become obsolete?

 Lost importance with advancement of cement & steel

9/  Igneous rocks are formed from

 They are mostly crystalline (made

usually very hard to break

 E.g., Granite, Pumice, Basalt etc.,

 The original rock is subjected to

Ex: Gneiss, Slate, Marble, Schist and

This classification depends upon the chief constituent mineral of the

 When quarry fluid evaporates, it leaves crystalline film

MACHINE DRESSING CHESIL & HAMMER

 The stone should be easily and economically obtainable in bulk

 It should have fine compact texture

 It should be capable to withstand the effects of smoke and acidic

 It should be well seasoned and easily workable.

Appearance - fine texture, light colored stone - more durable

Toughness - measure of impact that a stone can withstand

1. Acid Test - atmospheric action can be resisted by stone.

5. Impact Test - determine the toughness of stone

6. Freezing And Thawing Test – freezing & thawing condition

7. Microscopic Test - microscopic examination

 After 3 days stones in chipped form are taken

 If the edges of stones are sharp as earlier, it

 Due to presence of earthy material and clay impurities water is

 Cubes of stones are then kept in water for 72 hours.

 Load is applied axially on load bearing surface using

9/  In this test, 50 grams of stones in chipped form are places in an oven at

 Weight of stones is then taken (W1)

 Then stones are places in distilled water for 3 days.

 After 3 days weight of stones is taken (W2).

The cylinder is placed on machine and steel

 The height of first fall is 1 cm, height of second

The height at which specimen breaks is

Then it is thawed or warmed at atmospheric

This should be done in shade to prevent any

This procedure is repeated several times

 Average grain size

9/  Atmospheric agencies such as : rain, temperature, wind, frost and living

 By applying some of above preservative materials, stones can be

 Manufacture of bricks is mostly a village industry

 The cost of construction work is less with bricks

 Brick - 3 to 3.5 kg weight; Frog- 1-2 cm deep on 9 cm high

Ingredients In - % Functions If in Excess

To retain shape, impart

Alumina 20-30 Absorbs water, imparts plasticity Cracks in brick on drying

Gives red color on burning. During burning excess oxygen –