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Biokimia Veteriner II Metabolisme Karbohidrat RKPS
Biokimia Veteriner II Metabolisme Karbohidrat RKPS
Biokimia Veteriner II Metabolisme Karbohidrat RKPS
KARBOHIDRAT
1
Jalur Metabolik untuk
Karbohidrat
Metabolisme, Struktur Sel,
ATP dan Energi
3
Tahapan Metabolisme
Karbohidrat
Reaksi katabolik terjadi melalui 3 tahap:
Tahap 1: Percernaan dan hidrolisis : menguraikan
molekul besar menjadi kecil agar bisa
memasuki jaringan darah
Tahap 2: Degradasi : menguraikan molekul menjadi
senyawa karbon (C2 atau C3)
Tahap 3: Oxidasi dari senyawa kecil di dalam siklus
asam sitrat dan transport elektrn untuk
menghasilkan energi ATP
4
Tahapan Metabolisme
Catabolic reactions:
Stage 1: Digestion
and hydrolysis
break down large
molecules to smaller
ones that enter the
bloodstream.
Stage 2: Degradation
Further breaking and
some oxidation of
molecules to 2 & 3-
carbon compounds.
Stage 3: Oxidation
of small molecules to
CO2 & H2O in the citric
acid cycle and electron
transport provides
5
energy for ATP
synthesis.
Cell Structure
Metabolic reactions occur in specific sites within cells.
6
Cell Components and Function
7
ATP and Energy
8
ATP and Energy
10
Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and
ADP to AMP
11
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
ATP and Muscle Contraction
Muscle fibers
Contain the protein fibers actin and myosin.
Contract (slide closer together) when a nerve
impulse increases Ca2+.
Obtain the energy for contraction from the
hydrolysis of ATP.
Return to the relaxed position as Ca2+ and ATP
decrease.
12
ATP and Muscle Contraction
13
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Learning Check
14
Solution
15
Metabolic Pathways for
Carbohydrates
Important Coenzymes in
Metabolic Pathways
Oxidation O
||
CH3—CH2—OH CH3—C—H + 2H+ + 2e-
Reduction
NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e- NADH + H+
17
Structure of Coenzyme NAD+
NAD+
Is nicotinamide
adenine
dinucleotide.
Contains ADP,
ribose, and
nicotinamide.
Reduces to NADH
when the
nicotinamide group
accepts H+ and
2e-.
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Coenzyme FAD
Oxidation
—CH2—CH2— —CH=CH— + 2H+ + 2e-
Reduction
FAD + 2H+ + 2e- FADH2
19
Structure of Coenzyme FAD
FAD
Is flavin adenine
dinucleotide.
Contains ADP
and riboflavin
(vitamin B2).
20
Coenzyme A
Coenzyme A.
Consists of vitamins B3, pantothenic acid, and ADP.
Activates acyl groups such as the two-carbon acetyl
group for transfer.
O O
|| ||
CH3—C— + HS—CoA CH3—C—S—CoA
21
Structure of Coenzyme A
22
Learning Check
24
Metabolic Pathways for
Carbohydrates
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Glycolysis: Oxidation of Glucose
26
Digestion of Carbohydrates
27
29
Glycolysis: Energy Investment
5 5
2
30
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Glycolysis: Energy-Production
In reactions 6-10 of glycolysis, energy is generated as
Sugar phosphates are cleaved to triose phosphates.
Four ATP molecules are produced.
31
6
8 10
32
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Glycolysis: Overall Reaction
In glycolysis,
Two ATP add phosphate to glucose and fructose-6-
phosphate.
Four ATP are formed in energy-generation by direct
transfers of phosphate groups to four ADP.
There is a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
34
Learning Check
In glycolysis, what compounds provide phosphate
groups for the production of ATP?
35
Solution
In glycolysis, what compounds provide phosphate
groups for the production of ATP?
In reaction 7, phosphate groups from two
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate molecules are transferred to
ADP to form two ATP.
In reaction 10, phosphate groups from two
phosphoenolpyruvate molecules are used to form two
more ATP.
36
Metabolic Pathways for
Carbohydrates
O O pyruvate
|| || dehydrogenase
CH3—C—C—O- + HS—CoA + NAD+
pyruvate
O
||
CH3—C—S—CoA + CO2 + NADH
acetyl CoA
38
Pyruvate: Anaerobic Conditions
Under anaerobic conditions (without oxygen),
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate.
NADH oxidizes to NAD+ allowing glycolysis to continue.
O O lactate
|| || dehydrogenase
CH3—C—C—O- + NADH + H+
pyruvate
OH O
| ||
CH3—CH—C—O- + NAD+
lactate
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Lactate in Muscles
40
Fermentation
Fermentation
Occurs in anaerobic microorganisms such as yeast.
Decarboxylates pyruvate to acetaldehyde, which is
reduced to ethanol.
Regenerates NAD+ to continue glycolysis.
O OH
|| |
CH3—C—COO- + NADH + H+ CH3—CH2 + NAD+ + CO2
pyruvate ethanol
41
Pathways for Pyruvate
Glycogen Metabolism
46
Diagram of Glycogenesis
47
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Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Formation of Glucose-6-Phosphate
In glycogenesis
Glucose is initially converted to glucose-6-phosphate
using ATP.
O
-
O P O CH2
O- O
glucose-6-phosphate
OH
OH OH
OH Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
48
Formation of Glucose-1-Phosphate
Glucose-6-phosphate is converted
to glucose-1-phosphate.
O
-
O P O CH2 H O CH2
O- O O
O
OH OH
OH OH OH O P O-
OH OH O-
glucose-6-phosphate glucose-1-phosphate
49
UDP-Glucose
UTP activates glucose-1-phosphate to
form UDP-glucose and pyrophosphate
(PPi).
O
CH2OH
H
O N
OH O O
O N
OH O P O P O CH2
O
OH O- O-
UDP-glucose
OH OH
50
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Glycogenesis: Glycogen
51
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Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Glycogenolysis
In glycogenolysis
Glycogen is broken
down to glucose.
Glucose molecules
are removed one by
one from the end of
the glycogen chain
to yield glucose-1-
phosphate.
52
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Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis
Is activated by glucagon (low blood glucose).
Bonds glucose to phosphate to form glucose-1-
phosphate.
glycogen-glucose + Pi
glycogen + glucose-1-phosphate
54
Glucose-6-phosphate
Glucose-6-phosphate
Is not utilized by brain and skeletal muscle because
they lack glucose-6-phosphatase.
Hydrolyzes to glucose in the liver and kidney, where
glucose-6-phosphatase is available providing free
glucose for the brain and skeletal muscle.
56
Solution
57
Metabolic Pathways for Carbohydrates
59
Gluconeogenesis: Glucose Synthesis
Gluconeogenesis is
The synthesis of glucose from carbon atoms of
noncarbohydrate compounds.
Required when glycogen stores are depleted.
60
Gluconeogenesis: Glucose Synthesis
61
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Gluconeogenesis: Glucose Synthesis
In gluconeogenesis,
Glucose is synthesized from noncarbohydrates such as
lactate, some amino acids, and glycerol after they are
converted to pyruvate or other intermediates.
Seven reactions are the reverse of glycolysis and use
the same enzymes.
Three reactions are not reversible.
Reaction 1Hexokinase
Reaction 3Phosphofructokinase
Reaction 10 Pyruvate kinase
62
Gluconeogenesis: Pyruvate to
Phosphoenolpyruvate
Pyruvate adds a carbon to form oxaloacetate by two
reactions that replace the reverse of reaction 10 of
glycolysis.
Then a carbon is removed and a phosphate added to
form phosphoenolpyruvate.
63
Phosphoenolpyruvate to Fructose-
1,6-bisphosphate
Phosphoenolpyruvate is converted to fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate using the same enzymes in glycolysis.
64
Glucose Formation
Glucose forms when
A loss of a phosphate from fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
forms fructose-6-phosphate and Pi.
A reversible reaction converts fructose-6-phosphate to
glucose-6-phosphate.
A phosphate is removed from glucose-6-phosphate.
65
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Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Cori Cycle
66
Pathways for Glucose
68
Regulation of Glycolysis and
Gluconeogenesis
TABLE 22.2
69
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Learning Check
70
Solution
71