THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

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THE ORGANIZATIONAL CHART OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous
System

Central NS Peripheral NS

Brain Spinal Cord Autonomic

Somatic

Parasympathetic Sympathetic

Sensory Motor

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system, in association with the endocrine system, controls
and coordinates the component parts of the body.
It is like a communication network that transmits information by
electrical signals throughout the body.

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is the most complex and elaborate system of the
structures in the human body.
It is composed of a group of interrelated units that enables one to
receive stimuli from the environment and to make it necessary and
appropriate response to the stimuli.
It regulates the behavior of the whole individual to enable one to make
the adjustments needed for survival.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
The following are the interlapping functions of the nervous system:
Sensory functions
Millions of sensory receptors detect changes, called stimuli, which
occur inside and outside the body. They monitor the temperature,
light, and sound from the external environment.
Integrative functions
Decisions are made each moment based on the sensory input. This is
called integration.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Motor functions
Based on the first two functions, sensory input and integration, the
nervous system responds by sending signals to muscles, causing them to
contract, or the glands, causing them to secrete substances.
Muscles and glands are called effectors because they cause an effect in
response to directions from the nervous system.
Therefore, the mentioned functions keep us in touch with our
environment, maintain homeostasis, and enable us to respond
appropriately to the conditions in the environment.
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CELLS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Glia or Neuroglia –The tissues that support the nerve cells
Three (3) main types of connective tissue cells of the CNS :
 Astrocytes — star-shaped cells that anchor small blood vessels to
neurons.
 Microglia — small cells that move in inflamed brain tissue carrying
on phagocytosis.
 Oligodendrocytes — form myelin sheaths on axons in the CNS
(Schwann cells form myelin sheaths in PNS only).

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THE NEURON

The nerve cell or neuron is the

basic unit of the nervous system.
Neurons vary in shape and sizes.
As the structural unit, each
neuron must perform five
functions.

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THE FIVE (5) FUNCTIONS OF THE
NEURONS
Receive information from the internal or external environment or from
other neurons
Integrate the information it receives and produce an appropriate
output signal
Conduct the signal to its output terminal
Transmit the signal to the other nerve cells, glands, or muscles; and
Coordinate its metabolic activities, maintaining the integrity of the
cell.

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PARTS OF THE NEURON

Cell Body
 Largest part; contains nucleus and most of
cytoplasm
 Most metabolic activities occur here

Dendrites
 Short, branched extensions
 Carry impulses from environment or other
neuron toward cell body
 Neurons can have several dendrites

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PARTS OF THE NEURON

Axon
 Long fiber which carries impulses away
from cell body
 Ends in axon terminals, located a distance
away from cell body
 Neurons only have one axon

Myelin Sheath
 Insulating membrane surrounding axon

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PARTS OF THE NEURON

Synaptic Terminals
 sites that transmit signals to and from other
neurons.
The synaptic terminals of one neuron may
communicate with a gland, a muscle, or the
dendrites of a second neuron so that the
output of the first neuron becomes the input
of the second.
In a typical neuron, incoming signals travel
along the dendrites, and outgoing signals
travel along the axon.

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TYPES OF NEURONS

These are three types of neurons which are classified according to their
functions.
Sensory or afferent neurons carry impulses from inside and outside the
body to brain and spinal cord.
Motor or efferent neurons carry impulses away from integrating centers
to the body’s effectors, the muscles or glands.
Interneurons or association neurons found within brain and spinal cord,
process incoming impulses and pass them on to motor neurons.

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TYPES OF NEURONS

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NEUROGLIA VS. NEURONS
Neuroglia are able to divide.
Neurons do not.
Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia cells, not the neurons.

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:
PARTS AND SUBDIVISIONS
OF NEURONS

- There are two main parts in the human

nervous system, namely, the central
nervous system(CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system(PNS).

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THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM

- consists of a brain encased in a bony

skull and the spinal cord protected by
the vertebrae.
- Acts as body’s control center,
coordinates sensory and motor
information for the purpose of
controlling the various tissues, organs,
and organ systems of the body.

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Gray and White Matter
of The CNS
The gray matter of the brain and spinal
cord consists of unsheathed nerve fibers
(cannot be regenerated if damaged) in
the cortex or surface layer.
The white matter makes up the internal
structure, and consists of myelinated
nerve fibers.

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LAYERS OF
THE MENINGES
 Meninges – are three layers of
membranes that cover the brain and
spinal cord.

 Dura Mater - Outer tough fibrous

membrane.
 Arachnoid - Middle web-like
membrane containing CSF.
 Pia Mater - Innermost layer
containing several blood vessels.
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THE PARTS OF THE
CNS: THE BRAIN
Cerebral
The Brain - contains over cortex

100 billion neurons. 75%

water and 20% oxygen. Cerebrum
Thalamus
Forebrain
Hypothalamus
- controls bodily functions Pituitary gland
and interaction with the Midbrain
Pons
environment. Hindbrain Medulla Spinal
oblongata cord
Cerebellum
- the human brain is divided
into three parts: forebrain,
midbrain and hindbrain.

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THE PARTS OF THE CNS:
THE CEREBRUM
Taking up 7/8ths of the brain’s
weight, the cerebrum governs all
sensory and motor activity.
This includes sensory perception,
emotions, consciousness, memory, and
voluntary movements.

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 THE PARTS OF THE CNS:
Right cerebral
Left cerebral hemisphere
hemisphere

THE CEREBRUM

The cerebrum is divided into the left

and right hemispheres.

Corpus Basal
callosum ganglia

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The cortex is also divided into 4 lobes
that correspond to the overlying bones
of the skull:
the frontal lobe specializes in motor
activity, personality, and speech;
the parietal lobe is where language,
temperature, pressure, touch are
interpreted;
the temporal lobe contains centers for
hearing, smell, and language input;
the occipital lobe specializes in vision.

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 THE PARTS OF THE CNS:
THE CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is the second largest
part of the brain.
It contains nerve fibers that connect it
to every part of the central nervous
system.
It coordinates voluntary and
involuntary patterns of movements.
It also adjusts muscles to automatically
maintain posture.
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 THE PARTS OF THE CNS:
THE DIENCEPHALON
The diencephalon refers to the
thalamus and hypothalamus.

The thalamus is the relay center for all

sensory impulses except olfactory
(sense of smell) and motor areas of the
cortex.

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 THE PARTS OF THE CNS:
THE DIENCEPHALON
The hypothalamus regulates behavior
and emotional expression, body
temperature, and many metabolic
activities. Attached to the pituitary
gland, it also controls hormonal
secretions of this gland.

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 THE PARTS OF THE CNS:
THE BRAINSTEM
The brainstem consists of 3 structures:
1) The gray matter of the midbrain
control visual reflexes and sense of
hearing.
2) The white matter of the pons plays
a role in regulating visceral (internal
organ) control.

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 THE PARTS OF THE CNS:
THE BRAINSTEM
The medulla oblongata connects the
rest of the brain to the spinal cord. It
regulates breathing, swallowing,
coughing, sneezing, vomiting,
heartbeat, and blood pressure.

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THE MAJOR STRUCTURES OF
THE BRAIN

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THE PARTS OF THE CNS: THE SPINAL
CORD
 Extends from the medulla oblongata if the brain to the area around
the first lumbar vertebra in lower back.
 Nerves from the peripheral nervous system extend out from the spinal
cord.
 Protected by:
A)Vertebral Column B) Cerebrospinal Fluid C) Meninges

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THE PARTS OF THE
CNS: THE SPINAL CORD

The Spinal Cord - a neural cable that

extends from the base of the brain to
the hips. It is well protected by the
bones of the vertebral column.
- It is composed of gray matter in the
center which contains the neuron cell
bodies. These are surrounded by
bundles of axons called white matter.
The white matter is so called because
of a white insulating myelin coating.
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  Columns of white
matter, composed of
bundles of myelinated
nerve fibers, form the
outer portion of the H-
shaped core of the
spinal cord; bundles of
axons called tracts.

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  Spinal cord functions
as the primary center
for all spinal cord
reflexes; sensory
tracts conduct
impulses to the brain,
and motor tracts
conduct impulses from
the brain.

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The spinal cord has 31 pairs of spinal
nerves:
8 cervical segments that correspond
to the C1-C8 vertebrae;
12 thoracic segments corresponding
to the T1-T12 vertebrae;
5 lumbar segments corresponding to
L1-L5 vertebrae,
5 sacral segments corresponding to
S1-S5 vertebrae, and 1 coccygeal
segment.

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CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

A colorless fluid is produced in the

ventricles of the brain; it surrounds
the brain and spinal cord.
It is called cerebrospinal fluid, and
it cushions the brain and cord from
shocks that could cause injury.
It is maintained at a level around
1/2 - 2/3 cup.

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THE CRANIAL NERVES OF THE PNS

The 12 pairs of cranial nerves transmit motor or sensory messages, or

both, primarily between the brain and the brain stem. And the head and
neck. All cranial nerves, except the olfactory and the optic nerves, exit
from the midbrain pons or medulla of the brain stem.

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Type of Cranial Nerve Function Nature Distribution
Olfactory Nerve carries sensory input for smell. Sensory From nose
Optic Nerve carries sensory input for vision. Sensory From eye
Oculomotor Nerve controls muscles of the eye and eyelid. Motor To muscle of
eyeball
Trochlear Nerve controls the eyeball. Motor To muscles of
eyeball
Trigeminal Nerve controls the face, nose, mouth, forehead, top of head, and Mixed From and to face,
jaw. teeth, lips, tongue,
jaws
Abducens Nerve also controls the eyeball Motor To muscles of
eyeball
Facial Nerve controls muscles of the face and scalp, and part of the Mixed From taste buds, to
tongue for sense of taste. salivary glands, and
face

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Type of Cranial Nerve Function Nature Distribution
Auditory or Cochlear provides sensory input for hearing and equilibrium. Sensory From ear
Nerve
Glossopharyngeal controls saliva, swallowing, and taste. Mixed From and to
Nerve pharynx, sensitive
from taste buds to
salivary glands
Vagus Nerve controls the heart, lungs, stomach, and intestines. Mixed From and to
visceral organs
Accessory Nerve permits movement of the head and shoulders. Motor To shoulder
muscles
Hypoglassal Nerve controls the muscles of the tongue. Motor To tongue

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THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM(PNS)
The somatic system and the autonomic system make up the peripheral
nervous system.
The Somatic Nervous System
- regulates conscious controlled activities
- consists of bundles of axons of sensory and motor neurons. These
nerves act as transmission line between the internal and external
environment, and the central nervous system.

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 THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM(PNS)
The Autonomic Nervous System
- regulates internal organs such as the
heart, intestines, and kidneys. It is
composed of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems.
The Sympathetic Nervous System
- acts on the internal organs to prepare the body for
stressful or energetic activity such as a “fight or
flight” condition.
The Parasympathetic Nervous System
- functions antagonistically to the sympathetic
nervous system. It governs maintenance activities
that can be carried on at leisure.
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 3 COMMON DISEASES
OF
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
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ALZHEIMER

Alzheimer’s disease is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that

slowly destroys memory and thinking skills and, eventually, the ability
to carry out the simplest tasks.

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia among

older adults.

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CAUSES OF ALZHEIMER
Scientists believe that for most people, Alzheimer's disease is caused by a
combination of genetic, lifestyle and environmental factors that affect the brain over
time.
The exact causes of Alzheimer's disease aren't fully understood, but at its core are
problems with brain proteins that fail to function normally, disrupt the work of brain
cells (neurons) and unleash a series of toxic events. Neurons are damaged, lose
connections to each other and eventually die.

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SYMPTOMS OF ALZHEIMER
Memory loss is the key symptom of Alzheimer's disease. An early sign
of the disease is usually difficulty remembering recent events or
conversations. As the disease progresses, memory impairments worsen
and other symptoms develop.
At first, a person with Alzheimer's disease may be aware of having
difficulty with remembering things and organizing thoughts. A family
member or friend may be more likely to notice how the symptoms
worsen.

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PARKINSON’S DISEASE

Parkinson's disease is a progressive nervous system disorder that affects movement.

Symptoms start gradually, sometimes starting with a barely noticeable tremor in just
one hand. Tremors are common, but the disorder also commonly causes stiffness or
slowing of movement.

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PARKINSON’S DISEASE
In the early stages of Parkinson's disease, your face may show little or no
expression. Your arms may not swing when you walk. Your speech may become
soft or slurred. Parkinson's disease symptoms worsen as your condition progresses
over time.
Although Parkinson's disease can't be cured, medications might significantly
improve your symptoms. Occasionally, your doctor may suggest surgery to
regulate certain regions of your brain and improve your symptoms.

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CAUSES OF PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
In Parkinson's disease, certain nerve cells (neurons) in the brain
gradually break down or die. Many of the symptoms are due to a loss of
neurons that produce a chemical messenger in your brain called
dopamine. When dopamine levels decrease, it causes abnormal brain
activity, leading to symptoms of Parkinson's disease.

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CAUSES OF PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
The cause of Parkinson's disease is unknown, but several factors appear to play a
role, including:
Your genes. Researchers have identified specific genetic mutations that can cause
Parkinson's disease. But these are uncommon except in rare cases with many
family members affected by Parkinson's disease.
However, certain gene variations appear to increase the risk of Parkinson's disease
but with a relatively small risk of Parkinson's disease for each of these genetic
markers.

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CAUSES OF PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
Environmental triggers. Exposure to certain toxins or environmental factors may
increase the risk of later Parkinson's disease, but the risk is relatively small.

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SYMPTOMS OF PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
Parkinson's disease signs and symptoms can be different for everyone. Early signs
may be mild and go unnoticed. Symptoms often begin on one side of your body
and usually remain worse on that side, even after symptoms begin to affect both
sides.

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SYMPTOMS OF PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
Parkinson's signs and symptoms may include:
Tremor. A tremor, or shaking, usually begins in a limb, often your hand or fingers.
You may a rub your thumb and forefinger back-and-forth, known as a pill-rolling
tremor. Your hand may tremor when it's at rest.
Slowed movement (bradykinesia). Over time, Parkinson's disease may slow your
movement, making simple tasks difficult and time-consuming. Your steps may
become shorter when you walk. It may be difficult to get out of a chair. You may
drag your feet as you try to walk.
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SYMPTOMS OF PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
Rigid muscles. Muscle stiffness may occur in any part of your body. The stiff
muscles can be painful and limit your range of motion.
Impaired posture and balance. Your posture may become stooped, or you may
have balance problems as a result of Parkinson's disease.
Loss of automatic movements. You may have a decreased ability to perform
unconscious movements, including blinking, smiling or swinging your arms when
you walk.

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SYMPTOMS OF PARKINSON’S
DISEASE
Speech changes. You may speak softly, quickly, slur or hesitate before talking.
Your speech may be more of a monotone rather than with the usual inflections.
Writing changes. It may become hard to write, and your writing may appear
small.

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DEMENTIA
Dementia describes a group of symptoms affecting memory, thinking and
social abilities severely enough to interfere with your daily life. It isn't a
specific disease, but several different diseases may cause dementia.
Though dementia generally involves memory loss, memory loss has
different causes. Having memory loss alone doesn't mean you have
dementia.

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DEMENTIA
Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of a progressive
dementia in older adults, but there are a number of causes of dementia.
Depending on the cause, some dementia symptoms may be reversible.

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CAUSES OF DEMENTIA
Dementia is caused by damage to or loss of nerve cells and their connections in the
brain. Depending on the area of the brain that's affected by the damage, dementia can
affect people differently and cause different symptoms.
Dementias are often grouped by what they have in common, such as the protein or
proteins deposited in the brain or the part of the brain that's affected. Some diseases
look like dementias, such as those caused by a reaction to medications or vitamin
deficiencies, and they might improve with treatment.

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SYMPTOMS OF DEMENTIA
Dementia symptoms vary depending on the cause, but common signs
and symptoms include:
Cognitive changes
•Memory loss, which is usually noticed by a spouse or someone else
•Difficulty communicating or finding words
•Difficulty with visual and spatial abilities, such as getting lost while
driving

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SYMPTOMS OF DEMENTIA
•Difficulty reasoning or problem-solving
•Difficulty handling complex tasks
•Difficulty with planning and organizing
•Difficulty with coordination and motor functions
•Confusion and disorientation

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SYMPTOMS OF DEMENTIA
Psychological changes
•Personality changes
•Depression
•Anxiety
•Inappropriate behavior
•Paranoia
•Agitation
•Hallucinations
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 WAYS ON HOW TO
KEEP OUR NERVOUS
SYSTEM HEALTHY THE NERVOUS SYSTEM - PREPARED BY GROUP 3 67
 WAYS ON HOW TO KEEP OUR
NERVOUS SYSTEM HEALTHY
Follow the prevention guidelines below to keep your body and nervous
system healthy:

Exercise regularly. Talk to your doctor about an exercise plan that will
be right for you.

Do not smoke or use other tobacco products.

Get plenty of rest.

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 WAYS ON HOW TO KEEP OUR
NERVOUS SYSTEM HEALTHY
Take care of health conditions that may cause decreased nervous
system functioning, such as:
 Diabetes.
 High blood pressure.

Eat a balanced diet. A balanced, low-fat diet with ample sources of

vitamins B6, B12, and folate will help protect the nervous system.
Make sure that your diet contains lots of fresh fruits, vegetables, and
whole grains.
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 WAYS ON HOW TO KEEP OUR
NERVOUS SYSTEM HEALTHY
Drink plenty of water and other fluids. This helps prevent dehydration,
which can cause confusion and memory problems.
 To prevent dehydration during hot weather and exercise, drink water,
rehydration drinks, or other fluids each day.
 Drink extra water before, during, and after exercise. Take a container
of water or sports drink with you when you exercise, and try to drink
at least every 15 to 20 minutes.
 Limit your intake of caffeinated drinks, such as coffee and colas,
which increase dehydration and can affect sleep.

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 WAYS ON HOW TO KEEP OUR
NERVOUS SYSTEM HEALTHY
Do not use alcohol or illegal drugs, which can affect functioning long
after use.
Protect yourself from head injuries.

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