CLAUDIA ANDREA CÁRDENAS

COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
 “potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual
presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative
goal” (Faerch and Kasper, 1983).
 (1) a systematic technique employed by a speaker to express his
meaning when faced with some difficulty; (Corder, 1977)
 (2) a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in
situations where requisite meaning structures are not shared;
(Tarone, 1980)
 (3) potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual
presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative
goal; (Faerch & Kasper, 1983a)
 (4) techniques of coping with difficulties in communicating in an
imperfectly known second language. (Stern, 1983)
CLASSIFICATIONS
Tarone (1981) paraphrase, borrowing, appeal for
assistance, mime and avoidance

Chesterfield and Chesterfield (1985) identifies repetition,

memorization, formulaic expression, verbal attention
getter, answer in unison, talk to self, elaboration,
anticipatory answer, monitoring, appeal for assistance
and request for clarification as second language
communication strategies.
TARONE’S TYPOLOGY OF CONSCIOUS
COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
(Tarone, 1977 cited in Bialystok, 1990: 39)
 1. Avoidance
a Topic avoidance
b Message abandonment
 2. Paraphrase

a Approximation
b Word coinage
c Circumlocution
 3. Conscious transfer
a Literal translation
b Language switch
 4. Appeal for assistance
 5. Mime
 Avoidance Strategies
 1. Message abandonment: Leaving a message unfinished
because of language difficulties.
 2. Topic avoidance: Avoiding topic areas or concepts that
pose language difficulties.
 Compensatory Strategies
 3. Circumlocution: Describing or exemplifying the target
object of action (e.g. the thing you open bottles with for
corkscrew).
 4. Approximation: Using an alternative term which
expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as
closely as possible (e.g. ship for sailboat).
 5. Use of all-purpose words: Extending a general, empty
lexical item to contexts where specific words are lacking
(e.g., the overuse of thing, stuff, what-do-you call–it,
thingie).
 6. Word coinage: Creating a nonexisting L2 word based
on a supposed rule (e.g., vegetarianist for vegetarian).
 7. Prefabricated patterns: Using memorized stock
phrases, usually for “survival” purposes (e.g., Where is
the ___ or Comment allez–vous?, where the
morphological components are not known to the
learner).
 8. Nonlinguistic signals: Mime, gesture, facial
expression, or sound imitation.
 9. Literal translation: Translating literally a lexical item,
idiom, compound word, or structure from L1 to L2.
 10. Foreignizing: Using a L1 word by adjusting it to L2
phonology (i.e., with a L2 pronunciation) and/or
morphology (e.g., adding to it a L2 suffix).
 11. Code-switching: Using a L1 word with L1
pronunciation or a L3 word with L3 pronunciation while
speaking in L2.
 12. Appeal for help: Asking for aid from the interlocutor
either directly (e.g., What do you call…?) or indirectly
(e.g.rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled
expression).
 13. Stalling or time-gaining strategies: Using fillers or
hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think
(e.g., well, now, let’s see, uh, as a matter of fact).
IMPLICATIONS
Oxford holds that language learning strategies “are tools for
active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for
developing communicative competence” (Oxford, 1990: 1). In
accordance with this statement, I highly recommend that EFL
teachers instruct learners communication strategies so as to
value English language learning more meaningful and
influential. Apart from that, teachers should also motivate
learners to apply communication strategies as greater
motivation relates to higher frequencies of strategy use. As
supported by Oxford (1990: 13), highly motivated learners
will adopt “a significantly greater range of appropriate
strategies than do less motivated learners”.
 1.Interviewee’s background and kind
of received training.
 2. Interview topic: Introduction to
interview presentation
 3. Interview presentation
 4. Communication strategies analysis
and discussion.
 5. Placement of the interviewee
 6. Recommendations to improve oral
skills
 5. Conclusions
Age
Work
Englishstudies
Personal characteristics
Course characteristics
Approach
Jobinterview
Role play
Personal background
Personal traits
Job experience
Expectations
COMMUNCATION STRATEGIES FREQUENCY GRAPHIC
Level: A2 (Waystage)

• As far as listening skills are concerned, she can understand phrases related to
areas of immediate personal reference (journalism) (very basic personal
information, family information, shopping, local area and employment)
• In spoken interaction, she can communicate in simple and routine tasks
requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar topics and
activities. She can handle very short social exchanges.

• In spoken production, she can use a series of phrases and sentences to describe
in simple terms her family and other people, living conditions and educational
background and her present or most recent job.
 
We can also stand out the qualitative aspects of spoken language use, which
describe specifically what the interviewee’s speaking abilities are and why she
is placed in A2;

RANGE: uses basic sentenced patterns with memorized phrases, groups of a

few words and formulae in order to communicate limited information in simple
everyday situations.
ACCURACY: uses some simple structures correctly, but stills systematically
makes basic mistakes.
FLUENCY: can make herself understood in very short utterances, even though
pauses, false starts and reformulation are very evident.
INTERACTION: Can answer question and respond to simple statements. Can
indicate when she is following but is rarely able to understand enough to keep
conversation going of her own accord.
COHERENCE: Can link groups of words with simple connectors like “and”
“but” and “because”.
The communication strategies adopted and found by the authors during the
interview are presented below;

PARAPHRASE: Approximation (Tarone, 1981)

BORROWING: Literal translation (Tarone, 1981)
Language Switch
APPEAL FOR ASSISTANCE: Appeal to authority (Tarone, 1981)
Ask for correction/ verification
MIME: (Tarone, 1981)
PREFABRICATED PATTERNS: (Tarone, 1981)
METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY: Delayed production (O’Malley et al
1985)
REQUEST FOR CLARIFICATION: (Chesterfield and Chesterfield, 1985)
MONITORING: (Chesterfield and Chesterfield, 1985)
AVOIDANCE: (Tarone, 1981)
 
• The interviewee uses different kind of communicative
strategies in her answers in order to maintain a smooth flow
of interaction.

• The placement of the interviewee must not only be

subjected to the analysis of her communication strategies but
must also be based on her reading and writing skills.

• The interviewee makes use of control strategies which

allow her to maintain the course of the interaction and to feel
confident about not misunderstanding the message.

• The learner made overuse of words and expressions, which

evidence her lack of proficiency and competence in the
foreign language.