4.

0 Develop Hypotheses

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state

in clear terms the working hypothesis or research
question. Depending on the nature of study, research
problem would lead to either formulation of research
questions or research hypothesis.
• Formulate research questions when the research is
more exploratory and investigative in nature, which will
require collection of data and analysis of results before
drawing any conclusions
• Formulate hypothesis when there is a significant body
of knowledge already available that allows a prediction
about the outcome of study.
 4.0 Develop Hypotheses

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state

in clear terms the working hypothesis or research
question. Depending on the nature of study, research
problem would lead to either formulation of research
questions or research hypothesis.
• Formulate research questions when the research is
more exploratory and investigative in nature, which will
require collection of data and analysis of results before
drawing any conclusions
• Formulate hypothesis when there is a significant body
of knowledge already available that allows a prediction
about the outcome of study.
 4.0 Develop Hypotheses

 For a researcher hypothesis is a formal

question that he intends to resolve.
 A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for
an observable phenomenon which is
capable of being tested by scientific
methods .
 For example, consider a statement:
“the drug A is equally efficacious as drug B.”
This is a hypotheses capable of being
objectively verified and tested.
 4.0 Develop Hypotheses

Characteristics of hypothesis: Hypothesis must

possess the following characteristics:
i. Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the
hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be
taken as reliable.
ii. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested.
iii. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and
must be specific.
 4.0 Develop Hypotheses

iv. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in

most simple terms so that the same is easily
understandable by all concerned.
v. Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within
a reasonable time. One should not use even an
excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be
tested in reasonable time for one cannot spend
a life-time collecting data to test it.
vi. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it
claims to explain
 4.0 Develop Hypotheses

• What is a research question? [5]

• Used to analyze and investigate a topic that are written as a
question and is inquisitive in nature
• Should be clear and concise and must contain clear purpose,
variables, and population
• Three main types of questions – causal, descriptive, or
comparative
• The type of research question will influence the research
design
• Once data has been collected, it will be analyzed and
conclusions can be made
 5.0 Research Design

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions

for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.”
Research Methods in Social Sciences, 1962, p. 50

• It constitutes the blueprint for the collection,

measurement and analysis of data.
• An outline of what the researcher will do from
writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data.
 5.0 Research Design
Important concepts relating to research design:
1) Dependent and independent variables:
• A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a
variable. As such the concepts like weight, height are all examples of
variables.
• Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in
decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’.
• If it can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous
variables or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’.
• If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable,
it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent
to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable.
• For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a
dependent variable and age is an independent variable.
 5.0 Research Design
2) Extraneous variable:
• Independent variables that are not related to the
purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are termed as extraneous variables or
confounding variables.
• Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a
result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described
as an ‘experimental error’.
• A study must always be so designed that the effect
upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to
the independent variable(s), and not to some
extraneous variable or variables.
 5.0 Research Design
3) Control
• One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise
the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).
• The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study
minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables.
• In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to
restrain experimental conditions.
4) Experimental and control groups:
• In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is
exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when
the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an
‘experimental group’
5) Treatments:
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups
are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’.
 5.0 Research Design
Different Research Designs
Different research designs can be conveniently
described as:
• Exploratory Research Design
• Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
• Hypothesis-testing Research
Design/Experimental Research Design
 5.0 Research Design
Research design is the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted.
The preparation of research design involves the
consideration of the following :
1. Aims and Objectives of the research study.
2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
3. Source of information—Sample Design
4. Tool for Data collection
5. Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative
 5.0 Research Design
1.0 Aims and Objectives of the Research
Study:
Aims
Broad statements of desired outcomes, or the general
intentions of the research, which paint a picture of your
research project
• Emphasize what is to be accomplished (not how it is to
be accomplished)
• Address the long-term project outcomes, i.e. they
should reflect the aspirations and expectations of the
research topic
 5.0 Research Design
Aims and Objectives of the Research Study:
Objectives
Objectives are subsidiary to aims;
– Specific set of tasks needed to accomplish the aims
– Emphasize on how aims are to be accomplished
– Must be highly focused, feasible, and precisely described
– Address the more immediate project outcomes
– A set of achievable actions, which are design to answer or
to prove the hypothesis.

Aims and objectives are interrelated; the aim is what you want to
achieve, and the objective describes how you are going to achieve
that aim
 5.0 Research Design
Aims and Objectives of the Research Study:
Formulating research objective
Be S.M.A.R.T.
S – specific
M – measurable
A – attainable
R – realistic
T – time frame
Objective should be;
• Clear and highly specific
• Relevant to address the research problem
• To answer or prove the hypothesis
• Capable to be met by some form of scientific studies
• Realistic expectation
 5.0 Research Design
Research objectives should be defined
using action words
• To simulate ...To build ...
• To study ... To validate ..
• To design ... To construct ...
• To evaluate ...To analyze ...
• Etc.
 5.0 Research Design
2.0 Data Collection Methods

There are two types of data

• Primary Data— collected for the first time

• Secondary Data—those which have already

been collected and analyzed by someone
else.
 5.0 Research Design
Primary Data collection methods:
• Observation Method
• Survey Method
• Contact Method (Mail, Telephone,
Personal Interview)
• Experimental Method
If the researcher conducts an experiment, he
observes some quantitative measurements,
or the data, with the help of which he examines
the truth contained in his hypothesis.
 5.0 Research Design
3.0 Source of information—Sample Design

Researchers usually draw conclusions

about large groups by taking a sample

A Sample is a segment of the population

selected to represent the population as a
whole.
 5.0 Research Design
Designing the sample calls for three
decisions:
1. Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample)
• The researcher must determine what
type of information is needed and who is
most likely to have it.
2. How many people will be surveyed?
(Sample Size)
• Large samples -> more reliable results
than small samples.
 5.0 Research Design
Designing the sample calls for three decisions:

3. How should the sample be chosen?

(Sampling)
• Sample members may be chosen at random
from the entire population ( probability sample)
• The researcher might select people who are
easier to obtain information from
( nonprobability sample)
The needs of the research project will determine which
method is most effective
 5.0 Research Design
Types of Samples
Probability samples
• Simple random sample: Every member of the
population has a known and equal chance of being
selected.
• Stratified random sample :Population is divided into
mutually exclusive groups such as age groups and
random samples are drawn from each group.
• Cluster(area)sample: The population is divided into
mutually exclusive groups such as blocks, and the
researcher draws a sample of the group to interview.
 5.0 Research Design
Types of Samples
Nonprobability samples
• Convenience sample: The researcher selects the easiest
population members from which to obtain information.
• Judgment sample: The researcher uses his/her
judgement to select population members who are good
prospects for accurate information.
• Quota sample: The researcher finds and interviews a
prescribed number of people in each of several
categories.
 5.0 Research Design
4.0 Tool for data collection (research
instruments)
• The construction of a research instrument or
tool for data collection is the most important
aspects of a research project because anything
you say by way of findings or conclusions is
based upon the type of information you collect,
and the data you collect is entirely dependent
upon the questions that you ask of your
respondents.
 5.0 Research Design
4.0 Tool for data collection (research
instruments)
Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:
Step I: Clearly define and individually list all
the specific objectives or research
questions for your study.
Step II: For each objective or research
questions, list all the associated questions
that you want to answer through your study.
 5.0 Research Design
4.0 Tool for data collection
(research instruments)
Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:
Step III: Take each research question
listed in step II and list the information
required to answer it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain
this information.
 5.0 Research Design
4.0 Tool for data collection (research instruments)
The Questionnaire:
•Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a
questionnaire.
•Consists of a set of questions presented to a
respondent for answers.
•It is called an Interview Schedule when the
researcher asks the questions (and if necessary,
explain them) and record the respondent’s reply on
the interview schedule.
 5.0 Research Design
4.0 Tool for data collection (research
instruments)
The Questionnaire:

There are three basic types of questionnaire:

• Closed –ended
• Open-ended
• Combination of both
 5.0 Research Design
COLLECTING DATA :

Having formulated the research problem,,

developed a study design, constructed a
research instrument and selected a
sample, you then collect the data from
which you will draw inferences and
conclusions for your study.
 5.0 Research Design
COLLECTING DATA :
Collecting data through any of the
methods may involve some ethical issues
in relation to the participants and the
researcher:
- Those from whom information is collected or those
who are studied by a researcher become participants
of the study.
- Anyone who collects information for a specific
purpose, is a researcher
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-- qualitative and
quantitative

Processing and analyzing data involves a

number of closely related operations
which are performed with the purpose of
summarizing the collected data and
organizing these in a manner that they
answer the research questions
(objectives).
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-(qualitative and quantitative)
The analysis of data requires a number of closely
related operations such as:
i. Classify raw data into purposeful and usable
categories
ii. Editing; the procedure that improves the
quality of the data for coding.
iii. Coding; through which the categories of data
are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted.
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-(qualitative and quantitative)
iv. Tabulation; the technical procedure wherein the
classified data are put in the form of tables.
v. Computation of various percentages, coefficients,
etc., by applying various well defined statistical
formulae.
vi. Relationships or differences supporting or conflicting
with original or new hypotheses are subjected to
tests of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-(qualitative and quantitative)

Several types of Data Analysis;

• Descriptive analysis
• Relationship analysis
• Comparative analysis
• Optimization analysis
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-(qualitative and quantitative)
Several types of Data Analysis;
• Descriptive analysis
• Statistics of the data
• Typical parameters:
– Max, min
– Mean
– Standard deviation, variance
• Mean is mostly used for science and engineering
• Although seldom be performed, it’s important to know your
data distribution
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-(qualitative and quantitative)
Several types of Data Analysis;
• Relationship analysis
• Also known as cause and effect analysis
• Normally presented in the form of a graph of Y versus X
• Y is the effect or performance criteria (PC) – dependent
variables
• X is the cause or design parameter (DP) – independent
variables
• Analyze the trend and reason
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-(qualitative and quantitative)

Several types of Data Analysis;

• Comparative analysis
• Y versus X at various DP
• P is the different environments/setups
• Be careful when P is another DP
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-(qualitative and quantitative)
Several types of Data Analysis;
• Optimization analysis
• Important to identify the optimal conditions
• Cases when:
– One DP affecting two PCs in contrasting manner
– One PC is affected by two DPs in contrasting
manner
– Non-dominated solution
 5.0 Research Design
5.0 Data Analysis-(qualitative and quantitative)
For effective presentation, raw data (results) need to be
transformed into;
– Text (Explanation)
– Graphs
– Pictures, photographs
– Oscilogram/waveforms
– Tables
– Use variety of forms, but do not duplicate (i.e. same
content presented in different form)
Check similar works on how best to represent results
 6.0 Hypothesis- Testing
The usual question to be answered while testing
hypothesis;
“Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary?”
Various tests, such as Chi-square test, t-test, F-
test, have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through
the use of one or more of such tests, depending
upon the nature and object of research inquiry.
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting
the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
7.0 Generalizations and interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As
a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in
its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
• 1f the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he might
seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory. It is known as interpretation. The process
of interpretation may quite often trigger off new
questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.
 1. INTRODUCTION

• Research Process
Define Research Review the Develop Research Design
Problem Literature Hypotheses

Formulate the
Hypothesis

Data Analysis Project Execution Data Collection Sample Design

Collect Data
Hypotheses Interpretation Report Report
Testing of Results Preparation Presentation