LIFT

• Lift is defined as the net force generated normal (at 90°) to the relative
airflow or flight path of the aircraft.
• The aerodynamic force of lift results from the pressure differential
between the top and bottom surfaces of the wing. This lift force can be
defined by the following equation:
L = 1/2 ρ v2 CL S
• where ρ = density of air,
v = velocity of aircraft,
CL = Coefficient of Lift,
CL depends upon (1) Angle of attack & (2) Shape of aerofoil,
S = Surface area or planform area of wing.
Correct interpretation of the lift formula is a key element in the complete understanding of Principles of Flight.
 The air density at 40000 ft is only one quarter of the sea level value. Below is the example to illustrate the relationship between the changes in TAS that are required as air density changes with altitude.

• Air gets thinner as altitude increases.

• If the speed of the aircraft through the
air is kept constant as altitude is
increased, the amount of air flowing over
the wing in a given time would decrease -
and lift would decrease.
• For a constant lift force as altitude is
increased, a constant mass flow must be
maintained.
• As air density decreases with altitude, the
speed of the wing through the air (the
true airspeed (TAS) must be increased.
The lift formula can also be used to consider the relationship
between speed and angle of attack at a constant altitude (air
density)

• If IAS is doubled, TAS will double, and the

square function would increase dynamic
pressure (hence lift) by a factor of four.
• As the aircraft is accelerated, the angle of
attack must be decreased so that the CL
reduces to one quarter of its previous
value to maintain a constant lift force.
• IAS will vary approximately as the square
root of the dynamic pressure. The
proportionality between IAS and dynamic
pressure is:
• IAS = √Q
Review
• To maintain constant lift if density varies because of altitude change, the TAS must be
changed :
• If altitude is increased, density decreases, so TAS must be increased.
• If altitude is decreased, density increases, so TAS must be decreased.
• Maintaining a constant IAS will compensate for density changes :
• To maintain constant lift if speed is changed at a constant altitude (density), the
angle of attack must be adjusted.
• If speed is increased, angle of attack must be decreased, (if speed is doubled, angle
of attack must be decreased to make CL one quarter of its previous value).
• If speed is decreased, angle of attack must be increased, (if speed is halved, angle of
attack must be increased to make CL four times its previous value).
• Generally, a cruise speed is chosen so the aircraft operates at its optimum angle of
attack (L/D MAX - approximately 4°)
Typical Lift Curve
• Lift coefficient increases with
angle of attack up to a maximum
(CL Max), which corresponds to the
“Critical” angle of attack.
Continuing to increase the angle
of attack beyond this point makes
it impossible for the airflow to
maintain its previous smooth flow
over the contour of the upper
surface, and lift will reduce. This
phenomena is stall.
Interpretation of the Lift Curve
• To generate a constant lift force, any adjustment in dynamic pressure must
be accompanied by a change in angle of attack. (At CL less than CL MAX ).
• For a constant lift force, each dynamic pressure requires a specific angle
of attack.
• Minimum dynamic pressure is determined by the maximum lift coefficient
(CLMAX), which occurs at a specific angle of attack (approximately 16°).
• The angle of attack for CLMAX is constant. (This is true for a given
configuration).
• If more lift is required due to greater operating weight, a greater dynamic
pressure is required to maintain a given angle of attack.
• The greater the operating weight, the higher the minimum dynamic
pressure.
Ground Effect
• When landing and taking off, the closeness of the wing to the ground prevents
full development of the trailing vortices, making them much weaker. So, it affects
the Lift & Drag characteristics of aircraft.
• The influence of ground effect depends on the distance of the wing above the
ground. It is more significant within half of the wingspan.
• Upwash and downwash are reduced, causing the effective angle of attack of the
wing to increase.
• In ground effect, lift will generally be increased and induced drag (CDi) will be
decreased.
• The reduced downwash on wing will affect both :
(1) longitudinal stability because of CP movement and,
• (2) the pitching moment because of changes to the effective angle of attack of
the tailplane,
In general, it can be said that a low wing aircraft will experience a greater
degree of ground effect than an aircraft with a high mounted wing
High and Low Tail Characteristics
• A low mounted tailplane will have
its effective angle of attack modified
by the changing downwash angle
behind the wing.
• Decreased downwash from the wing
increases the effective angle of
attack of the tailplane
• A high mounted tailplane may be
outside the influence of the
changing downwash angle and not
suffer the same disadvantages.
 Influence of Tailplane Camber
on PitchingMoment

1. The type of tailplane-

camber does not influence
the pitching moment
generated when downwash
from the wing changes.
2. Decreased downwash will
always result in an aircraft
nose-down pitching moment.

3. The opposite will be true

of increased downwash.
Tailplane angle of attack