Mobile Computing CSE 062: Unit 1

Mobile Computing
CSE 062
Unit 1
Syllabus
Unit 1 INTRODUCTION
A Wireless transmission , Frequencies for radio
transmission
B Signals , Antennas , Signal Propagation ,
Multiplexing, Modulations
C Spread spectrum, MAC, SDMA , FDMA ,
TDMA , CDMA , Cellular Wireless Networks
What is Mobile Computing?
The demand for mobile communication creates the need for integration of wireless networks and existing
fixed networks.
– Local area networks: Standardization of IEEE 802.11
– Wide area networks: GSM and ISDN (Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and ISDN
or Integrated Services Digital Network).
– Internet: Mobile IP extension of the Internet protocol IP

 Aspects of mobility
– User mobility: Users communicate “anytime, anywhere, with anyone”
– Device portability: Devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network

Application Areas
 Vehicles
 Smart mobile phone
 Intelligent house or office
 Meeting room/conference
 Taxi/Police/Fire squad fleet
 Disaster relief and Disaster alarm
 Games
 Military / Security
Nomadic Computing
 Nomadic computing is the use of mobile computing technology to connect to the global Internet or use
specific data resources from a stored location while moving around from one place to another.
 Features:
 Transparency
 Constraints of mobile computing environment
 Application-aware Adaption
1. Transparency
Ability of system to hide some characteristics of its underlying implementation from user.
o Access Transparency
o Location Transparency
o Failure Transparency
2. Constraints
 Mobile computers expected to be more resource poor than their counterparts
 Less secure & reliable.
 Mobile connectivity is highly variable in terms of its performance (bandwidth & latency) & reliability.
3. Application-Aware Adaptions
 Allows applications & their extensions to react to mobile resource changes
 How?
 Collaboration between system & individual applications
 System monitors resource levels & notifies applications of relevant changes
 Application then adapts to the changes

Types of Application-Aware Adaptions
• Adaptions only on client side
Client-Based
• System provides mechanisms of adaptions,
applications are free to choose adaption policy
• RDO (Relocatable Dynamic Objects) are defined for
Client-Server
data types manipulated & for data transported
between client & server
• Proxy as intermediary between client & server
Proxy-Based
• Performs storage intensive & computation intensive
tasks
• Reduces bandwidth demands
Data Transmission
Simplified Communications Model
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Analog and Digital Data
 Analog data
o Continuous values within some interval
o Represented by real numbers
 How aloud is the sound?
 How bright is the color?
 What is your weight?
 Digital data
o Discrete values, e.g., text, integers
 Computers use digital data that are stored as bit stream in computers.
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Digital Data
• Each single bit can be represented by a signal element.

• Each signal element takes some time to send.
• Bit rate: The number of bits that can be sent out per unit of time.
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
time
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 In a communication system, data are propagated from one point to another by means of electromagnetic
signals.
 Analog signal
o Propagated over a variety of media: wire, fiber optic, space
o Continuously varying according to the source information
o Speech bandwidth: 100Hz to 7kHz
o Video bandwidth: 4MHz
 Digital signal
o A sequence of voltage pulses
o Almost unlimited bandwidth
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What is the objective?
 Maximize the data rate (Number of bits that the system can transmit in a unit of time) within an acceptable bit
error rate.
 Why there could be bit errors?
• The signal received by the receiver is different from the signal sent from the sender
 Usually, if data rate becomes higher, it is more difficult for the receiver to recognize the signal: higher data rate
results in higher bit error rate
 In order to achieve high data rate with low bit error rate, we need to study the principle of data communication.
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Terminology (1)
 Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over some transmission medium.
 Signal: electromagnetic waves that can propagate along the transmission medium
 Transmission Medium
 Guided medium: The signals are guided along a physical path
e.g., twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber
 Unguided medium: Wireless
e.g., air, water, vacuum
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Terminology (2)
 Direct link: Refers to the transmission path between the transmitter and receiver in which signals propagate
directly with no intermediate devices, other than amplifiers or repeaters used to increase signal strength.
 A transmission medium is point-to-point if:
o Direct link Point-to-point
o Only 2 devices share the medium
 A transmission medium is multipoint if:

Multipoint
o More than two devices share the same medium
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Terminology (3)
 Simplex transmission
Signals are transmitted in only one direction. e.g. Television
 Half duplex
Signals can be transmitted in either direction, but only one way at a time. e.g. police radio
 Full duplex
Both stations may transmit simultaneously. e.g. telephone
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1. Signals: Time Domain
 A signal is generated by the transmitter and transmitted over a medium.
 The signal is a function of time, but it can also be expressed as a function of frequency.
 Time domain concepts: an electromagnetic signal can be either analog or digital
o Analog signal: The signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time. Or, there is no breaks or
discontinuities in the signal.
o Digital signal: The signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then changes to
another constant level.
 Time domain function of a signal: s(t)
 Specifies the amplitude (in volts) of the signal at each instant in time.
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Periodic Signals
Concept of periodic signal
 The same signal pattern repeats over time.
 Otherwise, a signal is aperiodic.
Sine Wave: represented by three parameters,
s(t)=Asin(2 ft+)
Figure (a) displays the value of a signal at a

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given point in space as a function of time.
 Peak Amplitude (A)
o maximum strength of signal
o measured in volts
 Frequency (f)
o Rate of change of signal
o Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
o Period = time for one repetition (T)
o T = 1/f
 Phase ()
o Relative position in time within a single period of a signal

Varying Sine Waves: s(t) = A sin(2ft +)
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2. Signals: Frequency Domain
 In practice, an electromagnetic signal will be made up of many frequencies.
 A frequency means a pure sine wave Asin(2 ft+)
 It can be shown (by Fourier analysis) that any signal is made up of components at various frequencies, in which each
component is a sinusoid.
o By adding together enough sinusoidal signals, each with the appropriate amplitude, frequency, and phase, any
electromagnetic signal can be constructed.
o Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at
different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
 S(f) Frequency domain function of a signal specifies the peak amplitude of the constituent frequencies of the signal.
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Addition of Frequency
Components (T=1/f)
This signal has only two

frequency components:
(1) frequency f
(2) frequency 3f
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## Spectrum & Bandwidth
 Spectrum of a signal: The range of frequencies contained in the signal
 Absolute bandwidth of a signal: The width of the signal spectrum
 Effective bandwidth of a signal
o Often just referred to as bandwidth
o The narrow band of frequencies containing “most” of the signal energy
 DC Component (dc: direct current)
o The component of zero frequency (i.e., f = 0)
o With no dc component, a signal has an average amplitude of zero.
o With a dc component, a signal has a frequency term at f = 0 and a nonzero average amplitude.
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## Data Rate and Bandwidth
 Effective bandwidth is the band within which most of the signal energy is concentrated. Here, “most” is
somewhat arbitrary.
 Although a given waveform may contain frequencies over a very broad range, as a practical matter, any
transmission system will be able to accommodate only a limited band of frequencies.
o Because of the limitation of transmitter & medium & receiver
o This limits the data rate that can be carried on the transmission system.
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## Effective Bandwidth
 Effective bandwidth is one property of transmission system.
 If the effective bandwidth of the input signal is larger than the bandwidth of transmission system, the output signal
will be distorted a lot!
 The signal’s bandwidth should match the bandwidth supported by the transmission system.
Input signal Output signal

Transmission System
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Advantages & Disadvantages of Digital Signals:
 Generally cheaper than analog signals
 Less susceptible to noise
 Suffer more from attenuation!
o Pulses become rounded and smaller
o Leads to loss of information
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 Usually, we use digital signals for digital data and analog signals for analog data
o Analog data are a function of time and occupy a limited frequency spectrum; such data can be represented
by an electromagnetic signal occupying the same spectrum.
o Digital data can be represented by digital signals, with a different voltage level for each of the two binary
digits.
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 Can use analog signal to carry digital data
o Modem: modulator/demodulator: The modem converts a series of binary voltage pulses into an analog
signal by encoding the digital data onto a carrier frequency.
 Can use digital signal to carry analog data
o Codec (coder-decoder): The codec takes an analog signal that directly represents the voice data and
approximates that signal by a bit stream. At the receiving end, the bit stream is used to reconstruct the
analog data.
Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data
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Digital Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data
Analog Data
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Analog Transmission
Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog signals without regard to their content.
 The signals may represent analog or digital data.
 Therefore, the analog transmission system includes amplifiers to boost the energy in the signal.
 Unfortunately, the amplifier also amplifies noise.
 With amplifiers cascaded to achieve long distances, the signal becomes more and more distorted.
 For analog data such as voice, quite a bit of distortion can be tolerated and the data remain intelligible.
 For digital data, cascaded amplifiers will introduce bit errors.
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Digital Transmission
 Digital transmission is concerned with the content of the signal.
o It can use digital signal, or analog signal.
 Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
o A repeater receives the signal, recovers the pattern of 1s and 0s, regenerates the signal, and
retransmits the signal.
o Amplifiers cannot do this, as the signal has no meaning of 0 or 1
 Attenuation is overcome, noise is not cumulative.
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Advantages of Digital Transmission:
 Digital technology: The advent of low cost LSI/VLSI technology has caused a continuing drop in the cost
and size of digital circuitry.
 Data integrity: With the use of repeaters, the effects of noise and other impairments are not cumulative.
Thus it is possible to transmit data longer distances and over lower quality lines while maintaining the
integrity of the data.
 Capacity utilization:
o High bandwidth links become economical.
o High degree of multiplexing is easier with digital techniques.
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 Security & Privacy: Encryption technique can be readily applied to digital data and to analog data that
have been digitized.
 Integration: By treating both analog and digital data digitally, all signals have the same form and can be
treated similarly. Thus economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by integrating voice, video,
and digital data.
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Transmission Impairments
 With any communications system, the signal that is received may differ from the signal that is transmitted,
due to various transmission impairments.
 Consequences:
o For analog signals: Degradation of signal quality
o For digital signals: Bit errors
 The most significant impairments include
o Attenuation and attenuation distortion
o Delay distortion
o Noise
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1. Attenuation
 Attenuation: Signal strength falls off with distance.
 Depends on medium
 For guided media, the attenuation is generally exponential and thus is typically expressed as a constant
number of decibels per unit distance.
 For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance and the makeup of the
atmosphere.
Note: A received signal must have sufficient strength so that the electronic circuitry in the receiver can detect
the signal. The signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error.
These two problems are dealt with by the use of amplifiers or
repeaters. 41
2. Delay Distortion
 Delay distortion occurs because the velocity of propagation of a signal through a guided medium varies with
frequency.
 Various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different times, resulting in phase shifts
between the different frequencies.
 Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data
 Some of the signal components of one bit position will spill over into other bit positions, causing intersymbol
interference, which is a major limitation to maximum bit rate over a transmission channel.
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3. Noise
 For any data transmission event, the received signal will consist of the transmitted signal, modified by the various
distortions imposed by the transmission system, plus additional unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between
transmission and reception.
 The undesired signals are referred to as noise, which is the major limiting factor in communications system
performance.
 Four categories of noise:
o Thermal noise
o Intermodulation noise
o Crosstalk
o Impulse noise
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 Thermal noise (or white noise)
o Due to thermal agitation of electrons
o It is present in all electronic devices and transmission media, and is a function of temperature.
o Cannot be eliminated, and therefore places an upper bound on communications system performance.
 Intermodulation noise
o When signals at different frequencies share the same transmission medium, the result may be intermodulation noise.
o Signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original frequencies or multiples of those frequencies will be
produced.
o E.g., the mixing of signals at f1 and f2 might produce energy at frequency f1 + f2. This derived signal could interfere
with an intended signal at the frequency f1 + f2.
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 Crosstalk
o It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths.
o It can occur by electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs.
o Typically, crosstalk is of the same order of magnitude as, or less than, thermal noise.
 Impulse noise
o Impulse noise is non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration and of
relatively high amplitude.
o It is generated from a variety of cause, e.g., external electromagnetic disturbances such as lightning.
o It is generally only a minor annoyance for analog data.
o But it is the primary source of error in digital data communication.
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Speed, Wavelength, Frequency
Light speed = Wavelength x Frequency

= 3 x 108 m/s = 300,000 km/s
System Frequency Wavelength

AC current 60 Hz 5,000 km
FM radio 100 MHz 3m
Cellular 800 MHz 37.5 cm
Ka band satellite 20 GHz 15 mm
Ultraviolet light 1015 Hz 10-7 m
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Types of Waves
Ionosphere
(80 - 720 km)
Sky wave
Mesosphere
(50 - 80 km)
Space wave Stratosphere

(12 - 50 km)
Ground wave
s mitter Recei
v Troposphere
Tran er
(0 - 12 km)
Earth 47
Radio Frequency Bands
Classification Initials Frequency Range Characteristics

Band
Extremely low ELF < 300 Hz
Infra low ILF 300 Hz - 3 kHz Ground wave
Very low VLF 3 kHz - 30 kHz
Low LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz
Medium MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz Ground/Sky
wave
High HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz Sky wave
Very high VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz
Ultra high UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz
Super high SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz Space wave
Extremely high EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz
Tremendously high THF 300 GHz - 3000 GHz 48
Propagation Mechanisms
 Reflection
o Propagation wave impinges on an object which is large as compared to wavelength. (e.g., the surface of the
Earth, buildings, walls, etc.).
 Diffraction
o Radio path between transmitter and receiver is obstructed by surface with sharp irregular edges
o Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS (line of sight) does not exist
 Scattering
o Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagation wave.
o - e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts

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Radio Propagation Effects
Building
Direct Signal
hb Reflected Signal
Diffracted
Signal hm
d
Transmitter Receiver
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Free-space Propagation
hb
hm
Transmitter Distance d
Receiver
 The received signal power at distance d:
where Pt is transmitting power, Ae is effective area, and Gt is the transmitting antenna gain. Assuming
that the radiated power is uniformly distributed over the surface of the sphere.
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 Path loss in decreasing order:
o Urban area (large city)
o Urban area (medium and small city)
o Suburban area
o Open area
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Antennas
 The antenna is the interface between the transmission line and space
 Antennas are passive devices; the power radiated cannot be greater than the power entering from the
transmitter
 When speaking of gain in an antenna, gain refers to the idea that certain directions are radiated better than
others
 Antennas are reciprocal - the same design works for receiving systems as for transmitting systems
Simple Antennas
 The Isotropic Radiator would radiate all the power delivered to it and equally in all directions
 The isotropic radiator would also be a point source

The Half-Wave Dipole
 A more practical antenna is the half-wave dipole
 Dipole simply means it is in two parts
 A dipole does not have to be one-half wavelength, but that length is handy for impedance
matching
 A half-wave dipole is sometimes referred to as a Hertz antenna

 Typically, the length of a half-wave dipole is 95% of one-half the wavelength
measured in free space:
 The half-wave dipole does not dissipate power, assuming lossless material
 It will radiate power into space
 The effect on the feedpoint resistance is the same as if a loss had taken place
 The half-wave dipole looks like a resistance of 70 ohms at its feedpoint

Antenna Characteristics
 It should be apparent that antennas radiate in various directions
 The terms applied to isotropic and half-wave dipole antennas are also applied to other
antenna designs
Radiation Patterns
 Antenna coordinates are shown in three-dimensional
 The angle f is measured from the x axis in the direction of the y
axis
 The z axis is vertical, and angle q is usually measured from the
horizontal plane to the zenith

Typical radiation patters are displayed in a polar plot
Gain and Directivity
 In antennas, power gain in one direction is at the
expense of losses in others
 Directivity is the gain calculated assuming a

lossless antenna
Other Simple Antennas
 Other types of simple antennas are:
o The folded dipole
o The monopole antenna
o Loop antennas
o The five-eighths wavelength antenna
o The Discone antenna
o The helical antenna

The Folded Dipole
 The folded dipole is the same length as a standard dipole,
but is made with two parallel conductors, joined at both
ends and separated by a distance that is short compared
with the length of the antenna.
 The folded dipole differs in that it has wider bandwidth

and has approximately four times the the feedpoint
impedance of a standard dipole.
The Monopole Antenna
 For low- and medium-frequency transmissions, it is necessary to use vertical polarization to take advantage of
ground-wave propagation
 A vertical dipole would be possible, but similar results are available from a quarter-wavelength monopole
antenna
 Fed at one end with an unbalanced feedline, with the ground conductor of the feedline taken to earth ground
Loop Antennas
 Sometimes, smaller antennas are required for
certain applications, like AM radio receivers
 These antennas are not very efficient but perform

adequately
 Two types of loop antennas are:
 Air-wound loops
 Ferrite-core loopsticks
The Five-Eighths Wavelength Antenna
 The five-eighths wavelength antenna is used vertically

either as a mobile or base antenna in VHF and UHF
systems
 It has omnidirectional response in the horizontal plane
 Radiation is concentrated at a lower angle, resulting in

gain in the horizontal direction
 It also has a higher impedance than a quarter-wave

monopole.
The Discone Antenna
 The discone antenna is characterized by very wide bandwidth,
covering a 10:1 frequency range
 It also has an omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal plane and a

gain comparable to that of a dipole
 The feedpoint resistance is typically 50 ohms
 Typically, the length of the surface of the cone is about one-quarter

wavelength at the lowest operating frequency
The Helical Antenna
 Several types of antennas are classified as helical
 The antenna in the sketch has its maximum

radiation along its long axis
 A quarter-wave monopole can be shortened and

wound into a helix— common in rubber ducky
antenna used with many handheld transceivers
Antenna Arrays
 Simple antenna elements can be combined to form arrays resulting in reinforcement in some directions and
cancellations in others to give better gain and directional characteristics.
 Examples of arrays are:
o The Yagi Array
o The Log-Periodic Dipole Array
o The Turnstile Array
o The Monopole Phased Array
o Other Phased Arrays

Mobile and Portable Antenna
 Mobile and portable antennas used with cellular and
PCS systems have to be omnidirectional and small
 The simplest antenna is the quarter-wavelength

monopole are these are usually the ones supplied
with portable phones
 For mobile phones, and common configuration is the

quarter-wave antenna with a half-wave antenna
mounted collinearly above it
Bandwidth Utilization:
Multiplexing and Spreading
Note
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of

available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.
Efficiency can be achieved by

multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the
bandwidth between multiple users.
6.72
MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous) transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
 Frequency-Division Multiplexing
 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
 Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
 Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
6.73
Multiplexing
Dr. Bharat Bhushan, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India.
Continued..
 Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single
medium.
 The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for
multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
 Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines
to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one
output line.
 Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the

receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs).
Dividing a link into channels
Continued..
Why Multiplexing?
 The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium can only
have one signal at a time.
 If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such a way
that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10
signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
 When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision. Multiplexing
concept is used to avoid such collision.
1. Frequency-division multiplexing
Continued..
 Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a
single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.
 The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques,
and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
 The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different
frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
Continued..
Advantages of FDM:
 FDM is used for analog signals.
 FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
Disadvantages of FDM:
 FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
 A Large number of modulators are required.
 It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications of FDM:
 FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
 It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they are
multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.
Continued..
Note
FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
2. Wavelength-division multiplexing
Continued..
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are transmitted
through the fibre optic cable.
 Optical signals from different sources are combined to form a wider band of light with the help of
multiplexer.
 At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective
destinations.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
 Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form a
composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
 Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.
3. Time-division multiplexing
Continued..
 It is a digital technique.
 In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with
different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals
operate at the same frequency with different time.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
 A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
Continued..
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is
transmitted one-by-one.
 In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which
each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
 It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital signals.
 There are two types of TDM:
1. Synchronous TDM
2. Asynchronous TDM
Continued..
1. Synchronous TDM
 Time slot is preassigned to every device.
 Each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device contains the data or not.
 If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
 In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the form of
frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
 The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
 If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Continued..
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:
 The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted which is
having no data.
 The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input lines.
An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.
Continued..
2. Asynchronous TDM
 Also known as Statistical TDM.
 Time slots are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices
which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits
only the data from active workstations.
 An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
 In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the channel.
 In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In Asynchronous
TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
Note
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.
Modulation
Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by an analog signal. One may ask why
we need to modulate an analog signal; it is already analog. Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in
nature or if only a bandpass channel is available to us.
 Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
 A carrier signal is modulated only in amplitude value

 The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier
 The required bandwidth is 2B, where B is the bandwidth of the modulating signal
 Since on both sides of the carrier frequency fc, the spectrum is identical, we can discard one half, thus
requiring a smaller bandwidth for transmission.
Amplitude modulation
Note
The total bandwidth required for

AM can be determined
from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BAM = 2B.
Frequency Modulation
 The modulating signal changes the freq. fc of the carrier signal
 The bandwidth for FM is high

 It is approx. 10x the signal frequency
Note
The total bandwidth required for FM

can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.
Where  is usually 4.
Frequency modulation
Phase Modulation (PM)
 The modulating signal only changes the phase of the carrier signal.
 The phase change manifests itself as a frequency change but the instantaneous
frequency change is proportional to the derivative of the amplitude.
 The bandwidth is higher than for AM.
Phase modulation
Note
The total bandwidth required for PM

can be determined from the bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B.
Where  = 2 most often.
Multiple Access Techniques
 Used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum.
 In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send information
simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while receiving information from the base station
to the mobile station.
 A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell communicates with a base
station.
 The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to
handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
 There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the following −
• Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
• Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
• Space division multiple access (SDMA)

Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques can be classified
as narrowband and wideband systems.
 Narrowband Systems: Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence
bandwidth are called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to use the same channel but
allocates a unique time slot to each user on the channel, thus separating a small number of users in time on a
single channel.
 Wideband Systems: In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly affect the received signal
within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades occur only in a small fraction of the signal
bandwidth.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of FDMA are as follows.
• FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access the network.
• If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other users.
• FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than TDMA.
• The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously and continuously in
FDMA.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used instead of FDMA. The features of
TDMA include the following.
• Shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
• Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence handsoff process is simpler.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are not required.
• TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots per frame to different users.
• Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or reassigning time slot based on priority.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where several transmitters use a single
channel to send information simultaneously. Its features are as follows.
• In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by separate frequency.
• CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
• While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same code can communicate
with each other.
• The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which is MIMO (multiple-input
multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and satellite communication. It has the following features.
• All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
• SDMA is completely free from interference.
• A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same frequency.
• The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA, can track a moving user.
FDMA TDMA CDMA
FDMA stands for Frequency TDMA stands for Time Division CDMA stands for Code Division
Division Multiple Access. Multiple Access. Multiple Access.
In this, sharing of bandwidth In this, there is sharing of both i.e.
In this, only the sharing of time of
among different stations takes bandwidth and time among
satellite transponder takes place.
place. different stations takes place.
There is no need of any There is no need of any
Codeword is necessary.
codeword. codeword.
Synchronization is not required. Synchronization is required. Synchronization is not required.
The rate of data is low. The rate of data is medium. The rate of data is high.
It is little flexible. It is moderate flexible. It is highly flexible.
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
 Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission bandwidth whose magnitude is
greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
 There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −
• Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)

 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
o This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the individual users are varied in a
pseudo random fashion within a wideband channel.
o The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts which is then transmitted on different carrier frequencies.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
o This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA.
o In DS-SS, the message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code.
o Each user is given his own code word which is orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the
user, the receiver must know the code word used by the transmitter.
 The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another type of spread spectrum. Time
hopping is also another type which is rarely mentioned.
Cellular Wireless Networks
 Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal communication systems, wireless
networking etc.
 The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems.
 Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more transmitters for data transmission.
Wireless Cellular Systems solve the problem of spectral congestion and increases user capacity. The features of
cellular systems are as follows −
• Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
• Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
• Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users by reusing the channel
throughout the coverage region.
• Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between mobiles).
• Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic area called a cell.
• Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
• By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups may be reused to cover
different cells.
Shape of Cells
 The coverage area of cellular networks are divided into cells, each cell having its own antenna for transmitting
the signals. Each cell has its own frequencies.
 Data communication in cellular networks is served by its base station transmitter, receiver and its control unit.
 The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon −

 Square: A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d
• Better if all adjacent antennas are equidistant
• Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
 Hexagon: A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations. It offers the
following advantages −
• Provides equidistant antennas
• Distance from center to vertex equals length of side

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Mobile Computing CSE 062: Unit 1

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Mobile Computing

– Local area networks: Standardization of IEEE 802.11

– Internet: Mobile IP extension of the Internet protocol IP

– User mobility: Users communicate “anytime, anywhere, with anyone”

– Device portability: Devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network

 Smart mobile phone

 Intelligent house or office

 Taxi/Police/Fire squad fleet

 Disaster relief and Disaster alarm

 Constraints of mobile computing environment

 Mobile computers expected to be more resource poor than their counterparts

 Less secure & reliable.

 Allows applications & their extensions to react to mobile resource changes

 Collaboration between system & individual applications

 System monitors resource levels & notifies applications of relevant changes

 Application then adapts to the changes

• Adaptions only on client side

• RDO (Relocatable Dynamic Objects) are defined for

• Proxy as intermediary between client & server

Simplified Communications Model

o Continuous values within some interval

o Represented by real numbers

 How aloud is the sound?

 How bright is the color?

 What is your weight?

o Discrete values, e.g., text, integers

• Each single bit can be represented by a signal element.

o Propagated over a variety of media: wire, fiber optic, space

o Continuously varying according to the source information

o Speech bandwidth: 100Hz to 7kHz

o Video bandwidth: 4MHz

o A sequence of voltage pulses

o Almost unlimited bandwidth

 Why there could be bit errors?

 Guided medium: The signals are guided along a physical path

e.g., twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber

 Unguided medium: Wireless

e.g., air, water, vacuum

 A transmission medium is point-to-point if:

o Direct link Point-to-point

o Only 2 devices share the medium

 A transmission medium is multipoint if:

Signals are transmitted in only one direction. e.g. Television

Both stations may transmit simultaneously. e.g. telephone

 A signal is generated by the transmitter and transmitted over a medium.

 Time domain concepts: an electromagnetic signal can be either analog or digital

 Time domain function of a signal: s(t)

Concept of periodic signal

 The same signal pattern repeats over time.

 Otherwise, a signal is aperiodic.

Sine Wave: represented by three parameters,

Figure (a) displays the value of a signal at a

o maximum strength of signal

o Rate of change of signal

o Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second

o Period = time for one repetition (T)

o Relative position in time within a single period of a signal

 In practice, an electromagnetic signal will be made up of many frequencies.

 A frequency means a pure sine wave Asin(2 ft+)

This signal has only two

 Spectrum of a signal: The range of frequencies contained in the signal

 Absolute bandwidth of a signal: The width of the signal spectrum