C

*Presence of impurities.
*Improper and unequal growth of crystal.
*Displacement of atom at interstitial site.
*Due to the point defects, holes are created in solids which help
to increase electrical conductivity.

*Defects increase the reactivity and catalytic properties of metals.

*Defects decrease melting point which helps the melting casting

of alloys and metal at lower temperature.

*Defects helps to change the magnetic character of metal.

Crystal imperfections are broadly classified
into four major classes as below:
1)Point defects (Zero dimensional)
2)Line defects (One dimensional)
3)Planar or surface defects (Two
dimensional)
4)Volume defects
*In a crystalline solid, when the
ideal arrangement of solids is
distorted around a point/ atom it is
called a point defect.
Point Defects
(A) Stoichiometric Defect
 The compounds in which the number of positive and
negative ions are exactly in the ratios indicated by
their chemical formulae are called stoichiometric
compounds. The defects do not disturb the
stoichiometry are called stoichiometric defects.

 These are of four types

 Vacancy Defect
 Interstitial Defect
 Schottky Defect
 Frenkel Defect
i. When some of the lattice sites are vacant,
the crystal is said to have vacancy defect .

ii. This results in decrease in density of the substance.

iii.This defect can also develop when a substance is

heated.
 Vacancies

* -vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy

distortion
of planes
i. When some constituent particles (atoms or
molecules) occupy an interstitial site, the crystal
is said to have interstitial defect.

ii. This defect increases the density of the

substance.
i. Schottky defect of crystals arises due to existence of two holes, one due to a
missing positive ion and the other due to missing negative ion in crystal lattice.

ii. This defect preserve the electrical neutrality of the crystal.

iii. The presence of schottky defect in a crystal lowers the density of crystal.

iv. This type of defect occurs in highly ionic compounds and cations and anions of
similar sizes. e.g., NaCl, KCl, CsCl and KBr etc.
i. This type of defect arises when an ion is missing from its lattice site and occupies an
interstitial position.

ii. The crystal as a whole remains electrically neutral because the number of anions and
cations remain same. Since cations are usually smaller than anions, they occupy interstitial
sites.

iii. Frenkel defects do not affect the density of the crysatls.

iv. This type of defect occurs in the compounds which have low co-ordination number and
cations and anions of different sizes. e.g., ZnS, AgCl and AgI etc.
(B)Non-Stoichiometric Defect

i. In non-stoichiometric compounds the ratio of number of cation to

anion becomes different from that indicated by the ideal chemical
formula and the defects are called non – stoichiometric defects.

ii. These compounds does not obey the law of constant proportion.

iii. Non-stoichiometry is generally observed in compounds of the

transition metals where the metal ion can show variable valency.
Examples of these compounds are FeS, FeO, CuO, NiO, TiO etc.
(i) Metal Excess Defect
(a) Anion vacancies
(b) Extra cation occupying
the interstitial space
i. An anion is missing from its lattice site , leaving a hole
.

ii. The hole is occupied by an extra electron called the F

centers which maintain the electrical neutrality.e.g.
KCl.

i. This type of defect involves the removal of anions

(non-metal) thereby causing an increase in the cation
(metal) concentration
i. This defect arises when additional metal ions occupy
interstitial sites and electrical neutrality is maintained by the
presence of corresponding number of electrons in the
interstitial sites.

ii. For example, when zinc oxide is heated it loses some oxygen
and turns yellow in colour. The zinc ions move to interstitial
sites.

iii.  E.g. ZnO, CdO etc.

(ii) Metal Deficiency Defect

(a) Cation vacancies

(b) Extra anion occupying
the interstitial space
i. This defect occurs in ionic solids in which the metals ions can
exhibit variable valency.

ii. A positive ion (cation) is absent from its lattice site leaving a
hole and the charge is balanced by adjacent cation having
two charges in place of one.

iii. The defect is exhibited by transition metals due to their

variable oxidation state.

iv. Examples of this defect are FeS, FeO, NiO, TiO.

i. In this case the extra anions occupy interstitial positions.

ii. The corresponding increase in negative charge is balanced by

the oxidation of equal number of cations to higher oxidation
states.

iii. Since anions are usually large in size, therefore, would be

difficult to expect them to fit into the interstitial sites. In fact
no example of crystals containing negative interstitial ions are
known.
i. These defects are arises when foreign atoms are present at
the lattice site in place of the host atom. Or it is present at
the vacant interstitial site example n – type semi conductor,
p – type semi conductor.

ii. The process of adding impurities to the crystalline is

called as doping.
 Ans. c

By Dr.Sachi Singh
 Ans. c

By Dr.Sachi Singh
 Ans. c

By Dr.Sachi Singh
 Ans. c

By Dr.Sachi Singh
 Ans. c

By Dr.Sachi Singh
 Ans. c

By Dr.Sachi Singh
 Ans. c

By Dr.Sachi Singh
THE END