THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

Distance Learning (DSL)

Module-3

ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

TOTAL ALLOCATED HOURS(T) –

APPLICABLE CAT. B1.1/B1.3/B3

PREPARED BY Neha Shivale APPROVED BY Sunil Saxena (Dy. TM)

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Syllabus
SUB MODULE SYLLABUS ALLOTTED LEVEL
HOURS

3.15 •Transformer construction principles and operation 2

Transformers •Transformer losses and methods for overcoming them
•Transformer action under load and no-load conditions
•Power transfer, Efficiency, Polarity markings
•Calculation of line and phase voltages and currents
•Calculation of power in a three-phase system
•Primary and Secondary current, Voltage, Turns ratio, Power,
Efficiency
•Autotransformers.

This PPT has been made in accordance with approved syllabus of MTOE

NAME Neha Shivale AUTHORISATION NO. TIAT/A/27

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• Transformers
• Principle operation of the transformer:

• A transformer changes electrical energy of a given voltage into electrical

energy at a different voltage level.
• It consists of two coils that are not electrically connected, but are
arranged so that the magnetic field surrounding one coil cuts through the
other coil.
• When an alternating voltage is applied to (across) one coil, the varying
magnetic field set up around that coil creates an alternating voltage in the
other coil by mutual induction.
• A transformer can also be used with pulsating DC, but a pure DC voltage
cannot be used, since only a varying voltage creates the varying magnetic
field that is the basis of the mutual induction process.
 
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• A transformer consists of three basic parts:

• 1] An iron core which provides a circuit of low reluctance for magnetic lines of force
• 2] A primary winding which receives the electrical energy from the source of
applied voltage
• 3]A secondary winding which receives electrical energy by induction from the
primary coil.
• The primary and secondary of this closed core transformer are wound on a closed
core to obtain maximum inductive effect between the two coils.
• There are two classes of transformers:
• (1) voltage transformers used for stepping up or stepping down voltages
• (2) current transformers used in instrument circuits.
• In voltage transformers, the primary coils are connected in parallel across the
supply voltage.
• The primary windings of current transformers are connected in series in the
primary circuit.
• Of the two types, the voltage transformer is the more common.
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• There are two types of voltage transformers either step-up or step-

down transformers.
• The factor that determines whether a transformer is a step-up, or step-
down type is the “turns” ratio.
• The turns ratio is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary
winding to the number of turns in the secondary winding.
• No transformer can be constructed that is 100 percent efficient,
although iron core transformers can approach this figure.
• This is because all the magnetic lines of force set up in the primary do
not cut across the turns of the secondary coil.
• A certain amount of the magnetic flux, called leakage flux, leaks out of
the magnetic circuit. The measure of how well the flux of the primary is
coupled into the secondary is called the “coefficient of coupling.”
• For example, if it is assumed that the primary of a transformer develops
10,000 lines of force and only 9,000 cut across the secondary, the
coefficient of coupling would be 0.9 or, stated another way, the
transformer would be 90 percent efficient.
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• When an AC voltage is connected across the primary terminals of a transformer,
an alternating current will flow and self induce a voltage in the primary coil that is
opposite and nearly equal to the applied voltage.
• The difference between these two voltages allows just enough current in the
primary to magnetize its core.
• This is called the exciting, or magnetizing, current.
• The magnetic field caused by this exciting current cuts across the secondary coil
and induces a voltage by mutual induction.
• If a load is connected across the secondary coil, the load current flowing through
the secondary coil will produce a magnetic field which will tend to neutralize the
magnetic field produced by the primary current.
• This will reduce the self-induced (opposition) voltage in the primary coil and allow
more primary current to flow. The primary current increases as the secondary load
current increases, and decreases as the secondary load current decreases.
• When the secondary load is removed, the primary current is again reduced to the
small exciting current sufficient only to magnetize the iron core of the transformer.
If a transformer steps up the voltage, it will step down the current by the same
ratio.
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• When the turns ratio and the input voltage are known, the output
voltage can be determined as follows:
• E2/E1 = N2/N1
• Where E is the voltage of the primary, E2 is the output voltage of the
secondary, and N1 and N2 are the number of turns of the primary and
secondary, respectively. Transposing the equation to find the output
voltage gives: E2 N1 = E1N2
 
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Basic construction of a transformer

• Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a
laminated steel core.
• The coils are insulated from each other as well as from the steel core.
• A transformer may also consist of a container for winding and core
assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to take our the terminals, oil
conservator to provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling purposes
etc.
• The sheets are cut in the shape as E,I and L.
• To avoid high reluctance at joints, laminations are stacked by alternating
the sides of joint. That is, if joints of first sheet assembly are at front
face, the joints of following assembly are kept at back face.
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Current transformer
• Current transformers used in metering equipment for three-phase 400 ampere
electricity supply
• A current transformer (CT) is a series connected measurement device designed to
provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its
primary. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays
in the electrical power industry
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• The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to

secondary. For example, a 1000:1 CT would provide an output
current of 1 amperes when 1000 amperes were passing through the
primary winding.
• Care must be taken that the secondary winding is not disconnected
from its low-impedance load while current flows in the primary, as
this may produce a dangerously high voltage across the open
secondary and may permanently affect the accuracy of the
transformer.

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
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VOTAGE TRANSFORMERS
• Voltage transformers (VT) (also called potential transformers (PT)) are a
parallel connected type of instrument transformer, used for metering
and protection in high-voltage circuits or phasor phase shift isolation.
• They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being
measured and to have an accurate voltage ratio to enable accurate
metering.
• A potential transformer may have several secondary windings on the
same core as a primary winding, for use in different metering or
protection circuits.
• The primary may be connected phase to ground or phase to phase. The
secondary is usually grounded on one terminal.
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Types of transformers
• (A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;
• (i) Core type transformer and
• (ii)Shell type transformers
 
 
• (I) Core Type Transformer
• Windings surrounds a considerable part of core.
• In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on  the core limbs
. The cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is insulated from each other.
Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage windings are
placed nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.
 
• (II) Shell Type Transformer
• The core surrounds a considerable portion of windings
• The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A
shell type transformer may have simple rectangular form , or  it may have a distributed form
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• (B) On the basis of their purpose

• Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in
current) at secondary.
• Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in
current) at secondary.
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• (C) On the basis of type of supply

• Single phase transformer
• Three phase transformer
• Single phase transformer Three phase transformer
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• D) On the basis of their use

• Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating
• Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network,
comparatively lower rating than that of power transformers.
• Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose
in different instruments in industries
•  Current transformer (CT)
• Potential transformer (PT)
• 
• (E) On the basis of cooling employed 
• Oil-filled self cooled type
• Oil-filled water cooled type
• Air blast type (air cooled)
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Losses in a transformer
• As the electrical transformer is a static device, mechanical loss
in transformer normally does not come into picture.
• We generally consider only electrical losses in transformer.
• Loss in any machine is broadly defined as difference between
input power and output power.
• When input power is supplied to the primary of transformer,
some portion of that power is used to compensate core losses
in transformer i.e. Hysteresis loss in transformer & Eddy
current loss in transformer core and some portion of the input
power is lost as I2R loss and dissipated as heat in the primary
and secondary windings, because these windings have some
internal resistance in them.
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Ohmic’ or ‘copper loss’

• Copper loss is I2R loss, in primary side it is I12R1 and in

secondary side it is I22R2 loss, where I1& I2 are primary
and secondary current of transformer and R1 and R2
are resistances of primary & secondary winding.
• As the both primary & secondary currents depend
upon load of transformer, copper loss in transformer
vary with load.
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‘ Core’ loss or ‘iron’ loss

• Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, both depend
upon magnetic properties of the materials used to
construct the core of transformer and its design.
• So these losses in transformer are fixed and do not
depend upon the load current.
•
• Where, Kh = Hysteresis constant. Ke = Eddy current
constant. Kf = form constant.
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Hysteresis loss
• The magnetic core of transformer is made of ′Cold Rolled Grain
Oriented Silicon Steel′.
• Steel is very good ferromagnetic material. That means,
whenever magnetic flux would pass through, it will behave like
magnet. Ferromagnetic substances have numbers of domains
in their structure. In other words, the domains are like small
permanent magnets situated randomly in the structure of
substance.
• These domains are arranged inside the material structure in
such a random manner, that net resultant magnetic field of the
said material is zero. Whenever external magnetic field or mmf
is applied to that substance, these randomly directed domains
get arranged themselves in parallel to the axis of applied mmf.
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• After removing this external mmf, maximum numbers of domains again

come to random positions, but some of them still remain in their
changed position. Because of these unchanged domains, the substance
becomes slightly magnetized permanently.
• This magnetism is called " Spontaneous Magnetism". To neutralize this
magnetism, some opposite mmf is required to be applied. The magneto
motive force or mmf applied in the transformer core is alternating.
• For every cycle due to this domain reversal, there will be extra work
done. For this reason, there will be a consumption of electrical energy
which is known as Hysteresis loss of transformer.
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Eddy current loss

• In transformer, we supply alternating current in the primary, this
alternating current produces alternating magnetizing flux in the core and
as this flux links with secondary winding, there will be induced voltage in
secondary, resulting current to flow through the load connected with it.
• Some of the alternating fluxes of transformer; may also link with other
conducting parts like steel core or iron body of transformer etc.
• As alternating flux links with these parts of transformer, there would be a
locally induced emf.
• Due to these emfs, there would be currents which will circulate locally at
that parts of the transformer. These circulating current will not contribute
in output of the transformer and dissipated as heat.
• This type of energy loss is called eddy current loss of transformer. This was
a broad and simple explanation of eddy current loss.
 
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Methods to overcome core losses

• The steel used is having high silicon content and
sometimes heat treated, to provide high permeability
and low hysteresis loss.

• Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy

current loss.
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Transformer on no load
• When an alternating source is applied in the primary, the source will
supply the current for magnetizing the core of transformer.
• But this current is not the actual magnetizing current, it is little bit
greater than actual magnetizing current.
• Actually, total current supplied from the source has two components, one
is magnetizing current which is merely utilized for magnetizing the core
and other component of the source current is consumed for
compensating the core losses in transformer.
• Because of this core loss component, the source current in transformer
on no-load condition supplied from the source as source current is not
exactly at 90° lags of supply voltage, but it lags behind an angle θ is less
than 90°.
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• I20=I2w+I2µ where Io is the input current ,Iw is the current lost in

overcoming the core loss and Iµ is the current required to magnetize the
core.
• Iw is the wattful component as it in phase with the source current while
Iµ is the wattless component not in phase with the source current.
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Transformer on load
• Whenever load is connected to the secondary winding, load current will
start to flow through the load as well as secondary winding.
• This load current solely depends upon the characteristics of the load and
also upon secondary voltage of the transformer. This current is called
secondary current or load current, here it is denoted as I2.
• As I2 is flowing through the secondary, a self mmf in secondary winding
will be produced. Here it is N2I2, where, N2 is the number of turns of the
secondary winding of transformer.
• This mmf or magneto motive force in the secondary winding produces
flux φ2.
• This φ2 will oppose the main magnetizing flux and momentarily weakens
the main flux and tries to reduce primary self induced emf E1
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• If E1 falls down below the primary source voltage V1, there will be an extra
current flowing from source to primary winding.
• This extra primary current I2′ produces extra flux φ′ in the core which will
neutralize the secondary counter flux φ2.
• Hence the main magnetizing flux of core, Φ remains unchanged
irrespective of load.
• Full load copper losses are determined by this method.
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Efficiency of a transformer
• Efficiency = output / input .
• Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the
transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% .
• Efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when Copper loss = Iron
loss.
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Auto transformers
• In auto transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well
as secondary winding. If V1voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in
between ′A′ and ′C′.
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• Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,

• As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily

be understood that value of constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or
voltage ratio of that auto transformer.
• When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e. between
′B′ and ′C′, load current I2 starts flowing. The current in the secondary
winding or common winding is the difference of I2& I1.
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Advantages of auto transformer

• For transformation ratio = 2, the size of the auto transformer would be
approximately 50% of the corresponding size of two winding transformer.
For transformation ratio say 20 however the size would be 95 %. The
saving in cost of the material is of course not in the same proportion. The
saving of cost is appreciable when the ratio of transformer is low, that is
lower than 2. Thus auto transformer is smaller in size and cheaper.
• An auto transformer has higher efficiency than two winding transformer.
This is because of less ohmic loss and core loss due to reduction of
transformer material.
• Auto transformer has better voltage regulation as voltage drop in
resistance and reactance of the single winding is less. 
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Disadvantages of auto transformer

• Because of electrical conductivity of the primary and secondary windings the
lower voltage circuit is liable to be impressed upon by higher voltage. To
avoid breakdown in the lower voltage circuit, it becomes necessary to design
the low voltage circuit to withstand higher voltage.
• The leakage flux between the primary and secondary windings is small and
hence the impedance is low. This results into severe short circuit currents
under fault conditions.
• The connections on primary and secondary sides have necessarily needs to
be same, except when using interconnected starring connections. This
introduces complications due to changing primary and secondary phase
angle particularly in the case of delta / delta connection.
• Because of common neutral in a star / star connected auto transformer it is
not possible to earth neutral of one side only.
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Applications Of Autotransformer

• Compensating voltage drops by boosting supply voltage in

distribution systems.
• Auto transformers with a number of tapping are used for starting
induction and synchronous motors.
• Auto transformer is used as variac in laboratory or where continuous
variable over broad ranges are required
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Three Phase Power Definition

• It is found that generation of three phase power is more economical than

generation of single phase power.
• In three phase electric power, the three voltage and current waveform are 120°
offset in time in each cycle of power.
• That means; each voltage waveform has phase difference of 120° to other
voltage waveform and each current waveform has phase difference of 120° to
other current waveform.
• Three phase power definition states that in an electrical system, three individual
single phase powers are carried out by three separate power circuits.
• The voltages of these three powers are ideally 120° apart from each other in
time-phase. Similarly, the currents of these three powers are also ideally 120°
apart from each other. Ideal three phase power system implies balanced system.
• A three phase system is said to be unbalanced when either at least one of the
three phase voltage is not equal to other or the phase angle between these
phases is not exactly equal to 120°.
• 
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Advantages of Three Phase System

• There are many reasons due to which this power is more preferable than single
phase power:
• The single phase power equation is Which is time dependent function.
Whereas three phase power equation is

• Which is time independent constant function. Hence the single phase power is
pulsating. This generally does not effect the low rating motor but in larger
rated motor, it produces excessive vibration. So three phase power is more
preferable for high tension power load. 
• The rating of a three phase machine 1.5 times greater than that of same size
single phase machine. 
• Single phase induction motor has no starting torque, so we have to provide
some auxiliary means of starting, but three phase induction motor is self
starting-does not require any auxiliary means
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• Power factor and efficiency, both are greater in case of three phase
system.