UNIT TWO

ECOLOGY
 ECOLOGY
The German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who originally coined
the term ecology in 1866.
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions
among/between organisms and their environment
Component of the ecosystem are :
 Biotic factors – any living part of an environment
with which an organism might interact.
Ex. Animals, plants, mushrooms, bacteria, etc.
 Abiotic factors – nonliving part of the environment that
influence the organism.
 Ex. Sunlight, heat, precipitation, humidity, wind, water current,
soil type, etc.
Figure 1.5
Sunlight

Leaves absorb
light energy from Leaves take in
the sun. carbon dioxide
CO2 from the air
and release
oxygen.

O2

Cycling
of
chemical
nutrients

Leaves fall to Water and Animals eat

the ground and minerals in leaves and fruit
are decomposed the soil are from the tree.
by organisms taken up by
that return the tree
minerals to the through
soil. its roots.
Cont’d
Levels of ecological organization (from smallest to largest):
Species – group of similar organisms that breed and produce
fertile offspring.
Population – group of individuals that belong to the same
species and live in the same area.
Community – different populations living together in a
defined area.
 Ecosystem – all the organisms that live in a place together
with their physical environment.
Biome – group of ecosystems that share similar climates and
typical organisms.
Biosphere – all life on Earth and all parts of Earth in which
life exists.
 Decomposition and nutrient
recycling in an ecosystem

Why is it important that

materials are recycled?
 Cont..
Recycling of nutrient is an essential process
in ecosystem. Because :
There is a finite amount of each nutrient

in an ecosystem and so the same atoms

must constantly be re-used, over and
over again.
Link primary productivity and

decomposition
Cont..
Materials are moved around an ecosystem when
organisms:
Feed
Excrete
 respire and breathe
 die and are decomposed
All the organisms in the ecosystem are
interdependent and interact with their physical
environment.
a waste product to one organism becomes

a vital nutrient to another.

 Cont…
Energy is eventually lost from the ecosystem as heat and
must be replaced as light.
Energy cannot recycle in an ecosystem.
Unlike nutrients, energy flow in one direction(from sun
to producer to consumer ).
The nutrients just keep on being recycled.
Figure 1.6a
Sunlight

Producers absorb light

energy and transform it into
chemical energy.

Chemical
energy

Chemical energy in
food is transferred
from plants to
consumers.

(a) Energy flow from sunlight to

producers to consumers
 Cont…
Decomposition is the key process in the recycling of nutrients
within ecosystems.
Decomposition is the breakdown of chemical bonds formed
during the construction of plant and animal tissues.
Decomposition involves an array of processes including:
Leaching, fragmentation, digestion, and excretion.
The wide variety of organisms involved in decomposition are:
Bacteria and fungi(saprotrophs )
Invertebrate detritivores
Detritivores are heterotrophic organisms who ingest dead
organic matter. (E.g. earthworms, woodlice, millipedes).
 Cont..
Saprotrophs are heterotrophic organisms who secrete
digestive enzymes onto dead organism matter and absorb
the digested material. (e.g. fungi, bacteria)
Decomposers feed by a method known as saprobiotic
nutrition. They feed on dead matter (detritus) through
extracellular digestion system.
The enzymes digest the complex organic molecules into
simpler, smaller ones and the micro-organisms absorb
these products of digestion.
Besides hydrolytic enzymes that break down complex
organic molecules many micro-organisms have enzymes
for other purposes.
 Cont..
An essential function of decomposers is the release of
organically bound nutrients into an inorganic form.
 As microbial decomposers break down dead organic

matter, they transform nutrients tied up in organic

compounds into an inorganic form. This process is
called nutrient mineralization.
 The same organisms responsible for mineralization

reuse some of the nutrients they have produced,

incorporating the inorganic nutrients into an organic
form. This process is called nutrient immobilization.
The difference between the rates of mineralization and
immobilization is the net mineralization rate.
A generalized model of nutrient cycling in a terrestrial ecosystem .
Fungi and bacteria are major decomposers of plant and animal
tissues.
Cont..
 Biogeochemical cycle
(from bio, “living”; geo for the rocks and soil;
and chemical for the processes involved).
There are two basic types of biogeochemical
cycles:
•Gaseous cycle and
•Sedimentary cycle
This classification is based on the primary
source of nutrient input to the ecosystem.
A generalized representation of the biogeochemical cycle of an ecosystem. The three
common components—inputs, internal cycling, and outputs—
 In gaseous cycles
the main pools of nutrients are the
atmosphere and the oceans. For this
reason, gaseous cycles are distinctly global.
The gases most important for life are
nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
These three gases—in stable quantities of 78
percent, 21 percent, and 0.03 percent,
respectively—are the dominant components
of Earth’s atmosphere.
 In sedimentary cycles
the main pool is the soil, rocks, and minerals
There are many different kinds of sedimentary
cycles.
Cycles such as the sulfur cycle are a hybrid of the
gaseous and the sedimentary because they have
major pools in Earth’s crust as well as in the
atmosphere.
Other cycles, such as the phosphorus cycle, have
no significant gaseous pool; the element is released
from rock and deposited in both the shallow and
deep sediments of the sea.
 CARBON CYCLE
Carbon, a basic constituent of all
organic compounds, is involved in
the fixation of energy by
photosynthesis.
 Carbon is so closely tied to energy
flow that the two are inseparable.
The Earth having ‘carbon-based
life forms’.
 Cont…
The main processes involved in cycling
carbon through ecosystems are:
photosynthesis

feeding and assimilation

respiration

 fossilisation

 combustion – fossil fuels are

burned, releasing carbon dioxide

into the atmosphere
Cont..
 Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is found in many biological compounds:
In proteins,
amino acids,
Nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) and
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as well as
ADP.
Therefore, without nitrogen, organisms could not
synthesize the above molecules.
 Cont…
Nitrogen is generally available to plants in only two
chemical forms: ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate
(NO3-).
Earth’s atmosphere is almost 78 percent nitrogen gas; it
is in a form (N 2) that is not available for uptake
(assimilation) by plants.
Nitrogen enters the ecosystem via two pathways:
Atmospheric deposition
Nitrogen fixation
• high-energy fixation
• biological fixation
 Cont..
1. Atmospheric deposition- this can be in wet fall—
such as rain, snow, or even cloud and fog droplets—
and in dry fall, such as aerosols.
2. Nitrogen fixation
This fixation comes about in two ways.
a. High-energy fixation - Cosmic radiation, meteorite
trails, and lightning provide the high energy needed
to combine nitrogen with the oxygen and hydrogen of
water. The resulting ammonia and nitrates are carried
to Earth’s surface in rainwater.
 Cont..
2. Biological fixation
I. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria - reduce’ nitrogen gas(N2) into
ammonium ions(NH4+) through ammonification process.-
This fixation is accomplished by:
Symbiotic bacteria living in mutualistic association with in
nodules on the roots of legume plant (belonging to the genus
Rhizobium bacteria).
By free living aerobic and an aerobic soil bacterium: (belonging to
the genera Azotobacter and Klebsiella) reduce nitrogen gas into
ammonium ions in the soil.
Decomposers decay the excretory products and detritus,
releasing ammonium ions (NH4 +) into the soil; this process is
often referred to as ammonification.
Ammonification process increases the total amount of nitrogen
available to the plants, and to all the other organisms also.
 Cont..
II. Nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas and
nitrobacter) - oxidise the ammonium ions
(NH4+) to nitrates (NO3 –) in a process called
nitrification; in this process there is an
intermediate product called nitrite (NO2–).
Nitrosomonas - oxidizes NH4 + to NO2- , and
Nitrobacter oxidizes NO2 - to NO3 - . This
process is called nitrification.
plants absorb nitrates from the soil
 The nitrates are then used to form amino acids,
which are used to synthesise proteins.
 Cont..
III. Denitrifying bacteria (Pseudomonas) -
reduce nitrate (NO3 –) to nitrogen gas (N2)
that escapes from the soil.
This decreases the total amount of nitrogen
available to the plants, and to all the other
organisms also.
Denitrification can occur under anaerobic
(“lacking oxygen”) conditions, when another
group of bacteria (Pseudomonas ) chemically
reduces NO3 - to N2O and N2 . These gases are
then returned to the atmosphere.
Cont..
Cont..
 Cont…
The aim of the current research on the
genetics of nitrogen fixation is :
To isolate the genes that control nitrogen

fixation and transfer them by genetic

engineering into other cells.
If all the cereal plants that are grown in the world
had nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their roots or if
their own cells could fix nitrogen:
crop yields in countries would be hugely
increased
Nitrogen saturation occurs.
 Cont…
Impact of over use of fertilizer:
 Eutrophication of rivers and lakes.
Eutrophication - occur when excess fertilizers can be
washed into lakes and rivers through leaching.
the fertilizers cause algae in the river to grow faster
 they grow so much that they block out the light for plants
underneath them, which die (due to competition for light)
 eventually the algae die also as they run out of nutrients
 The dead algae and dead plants become food for bacteria,
which breed rapidly.
 The large population of bacteria respires, using up oxygen
from the water.
 There is not enough oxygen left for organisms such as fish,
which have to move to another area or die.
cont…
Q1. The bacteria responsible for decay,
nitrification, and nitrogen fixation
require oxygen. However,
denitrifying bacteria do not need
oxygen. What would your advice to
farmer to improve the nitrogen
content in the soil?
 phosphorus cycle
The main reservoirs of phosphorus are rock
and natural phosphate deposits.
Phosphorus is released from these rocks
and minerals by:
Weathering, leaching,

Erosion, and mining for use as

agricultural fertilizers.
Over millions of years, phosphate ions can
leach into the seas and become part of newly
forming sedimentary rock
 Cont…
Phosphorus has no significant atmospheric
component or pool because it cannot exist in
gaseous state.
Phosphorus is present in organisms in the form
of phosphates.
phosphate is absorbed from the soil (or water)
by plants
on death, their bodies are decomposed and
phosphate ions are released from compounds
like phospholipids, ATP, DNA and RNA and are
returned to the soil or water
Cont..
 Sulphur cycle
Sulfur has both gaseous and sedimentary phases.
 Sedimentary sulfur comes from the weathering of
rocks, runoff, and decomposition of organic matter.
 Sources of gaseous sulfur are decomposition of
organic matter, and volcanic eruptions.
Much of the sulfur released to the atmosphere is a by-
product of the burning of fossil fuels.
Sulfur enters the atmosphere mostly as hydrogen
sulfide, which quickly oxidizes to sulfur dioxide, SO2.
Sulfur dioxide reacts with moisture in the atmosphere
to form sulfuric acid that is carried to Earth in
precipitation.
cont…
The main processes in the cycle are:
Sulphate ions in the soil are taken up by plants.
Sulphur is found in proteins, sulphur-containing
amino acids, such as methionine and cysteine.
These are passed to animals by feeding and
digestion.
 On death of the plants and animals, sulphate-
reducing bacteria (Desulphovibrio) release the
sulphur in the proteins in the form of hydrogen
sulphide (with the smell of ‘bad eggs’) in anaerobic
conditions.
SO42- ___Desulphovibrio → H2S (anaerobic condition).
 cont…
In some aquatic environments the
hydrogen sulphide is oxidized to sulphur
by photosynthetic sulphur bacteria; this
reaction is the equivalent of the
photolysis of water in the photosynthesis
of higher plants.
H2S _____photosynthetic sulphur
bacteria→ S

cont..
The genus Thiobacillus, then oxidize the
hydrogen sulphide (or sulphur) to sulphate
(SO4 2–), with sulphite (SO32–) as an
intermediate step in aerobic conditions and
makes sulphate ions available once again to be
taken up by plant roots from the soil.
H2S___Thiobacillus→SO32-→SO42- (aerobic
condition).
Sulphur can also become incorporated in
rocks, including those that yield fossil fuels.
cont…
 Combustion of fossil fuels oxidises the
sulphur to sulphur dioxide (SO2); this is a
serious pollutant of the atmosphere and a
major contributor to the formation of acid
rain
 In the atmosphere, the sulphur dioxide
becomes further oxidized to sulphite and
sulphate which dissolve in rainwater to form a
mixture of sulphurous and sulphuric acid:
acid rain
cont…
 Water cycle
The main stages of the water cycle are:
Respiration and excretion
Evaporation
Transpiration
Condensation and
precipitation
CONT…
 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
SUCCESSION-the process of replacing
one ecosystem with another ecosystem
through time.
The two types of Ecological Succession
are :
Primary succession
Secondary succession
 1. Primary succession
The succession starts from bare
rock/open water, previously uncolonised
ground, or from a newly formed pond
with no life.
No available seed bank and soil.
Primary succession can be:
• Xerosere
• Hydrosere
 Xerosere primary succession

First takes place from rock/bare land

The plants withstand shortage of water are called
xerophytes.
Lichens care pioneer species growing on the surface
of the rock/ bare land.
The lichens change the abiotic conditions,

making them less harsh. How?

The living lichens grow into the rock causing it

to crumble.
 When the lichens die, decomposers act on the

remains to release mineral ions into the

crumbled rock.
Cont…
The mixture of dead remains,
crumbled rock and mineral ions forms
a primitive soil.
This less harsh environment is suitable
for mosses (provided that there is
sufficient water). So, spores of mosses
that land there can now ‘germinate’ and
the mosses grow, outcompeting the
lichens in the changed environment.
Cont..
 Hydrosere primary succession
Takes place an open water area.
The plants are called hydrophytes.
Bare bottom open water with mud
colonized by little vegetation and
smaller animal (plankton).
Submerged plants become

established in the sediment formed

by the dead animals.
Cont..
They increase the amount of sediment
as they die and larger plants become
established
As time passes, more and more

sediment fills the lake and larger

‘emerging’ plants become established.
Eventually there is sufficient sediment

to support deep-rooted trees and the

climax woodland stage of the
succession is reached
Cont…
2. Secondary succession
Begins in an area, after communities are destroyed
by fire or by a farmer ploughing a field or by some
other human intervention.
secondary successions to the original climax
are usually much quicker than primary
successions because:
the succession is not starting from bare

rock/open water
 there is a seed bank of many of the climax

plant types available in remaining

undamaged plants
 the soil is already present
The essence/nature of succession:
Organisms colonise an area.
 They change the abiotic (physical) conditions
in the area.
The changed abiotic conditions allow other
species to colonise the area.
The new species compete with the ones there
before and become dominant.
 They also then change the abiotic conditions,
more species enter and the process continues.
 Cont…
The various stages in a succession are
called seres.
The final, most complex, state of a
succession is the climax community.
 Climax community is the most
complex community that can exist under
the prevailing environmental conditions
cont..

Why do different areas have different

climax communities?
 Cont..
The factors that could influence the
type of climax community formed are:
The presence of grazing
animals
Climate
Temperature
precipitation (rainfall)
soil type
soil depth
Cont…

What is the difference between

climatic climax communities
and grazing climaxes?
 Cont..

Forest climax communities in Europe do not

become as complex as tropical rainforest
because of the climate. Because of this, they
are said to be climatic climax communities.
Grassland in many areas would revert to
woodland or forest if it were not grazed. The
grazing animals nip off the growing points at
the tips of young tree shoots, preventing them
from growing. These grasslands are grazing
climaxes.
 The common trends occur in any
succession:
The total biomass of the community
increases.
 The species diversity increases.
 The number of ecological niches increases.
Food webs become more complex.
The community becomes more stable – can
accommodate small changes/losses more
easily
 Check point
Define succession and climax
community?
Distinguish between primary and
secondary succession, xerophyte and
hydrophyte, xerosere and hydrosere?

 Biomes
 Level of ecological organization :
Organism→ population →community → ecosystem→ biome →
biosphere
Biosphere
In 1875, the geologist Eduard Suess first coined the term
biosphere.
He used this to describe the layer of the Earth’s surface where
life is found.
Biosphere refers to all those parts of the Earth, including the
Earth’s crust, the seas and the atmosphere, where living
organisms can be found.
Composed of many ecosystems.
Biosphere divided into a number of biomes.
 Biomes
A climatically and geographically limited
ecological area that consists of organisms that
are adapted in similar ways.
A biome is a geographical or regional area
with:
a specific climate, and
 a specific soil type, and

 specific animals and plants that are adapted in

similar ways to the abiotic conditions within the

area.
Cont…

What are the main climatic factors

that determine the biome type?
Cont…
 The most significant climatic factors in
determining biome type are:
Temperature
 precipitation (rainfall)
These, in turn, are determined to a very large
extent by geographical location.
 Other factors that determine the nature and the
extent of biomes are:
Nature of soil, hydrological condition
Latitude and altitude
 Types of biomes

Biomes classified into two main

types:
Terrestrial
 aquatic
 1. Terrestrial biomes

A terrestrial biome is defined by:

 temperature, rainfall,
soil type, flora (plants) and fauna

(animals).
Terrestrial Biomes are classified according
to the dominant plant life-forms (grasses,
shrubs, and trees), rainfall patterns, soil
type and hydrological factors.
 Types of terrestrial biome
There are at least eight major terrestrial biome types:
Tropical forest,
Temperate forest,

Conifer forest (taiga or boreal forest),

Tropical savanna,
 Temperate grasslands,

Chaparral (shrub lands)/scrub forest

adapted to periodic fires
Fire is a natural part of the maintenance of this
biome.
 Tundra, and
Desert.
cont..
 1. Tropical rain forest
Tropical rain forests are characterized by:
Restricted primarily to the equatorial zone(in south
America, central America along the amazon river,
west and equatorial Africa and south East Asia).
The temperatures are warm throughout the year and

rainfall occurs almost daily.

 The most complex and species-rich ecosystems in

the world.
Rainforest covers about 7% of the Earth’s surface and

contains 25% of the known species

Have a high diversity of plant and animal life.
 Cont…
The flora includes- lianas(climbing tree), epiphytes (plants that grow
on the other large plant).
It contains many animals.
The vegetation is characterized by:
 Have evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved trees.


broad leaves fall off throughout the year, unlike the trees of


deciduous forests that lose their leaves in one season.

 Many of the trees are very tall, the root systems are shallow and


trees can easily fall.

Flowers and fruits are found throughout the year .


The soils are nutrient poor because many of the minerals from the soil
remain ‘locked up’ in the huge trees. The only recycling of nutrients
that occurs on a regular basis takes place when leaves fall.
There is no accumulation of detritus as decomposers rapidly break
down the leaves and release the mineral ions they contain. The roots
take these up, leaving few mineral ions in the soil.
 Cont…
The high rainfall and consistently warm
temperatures also result in high rates of
decomposition and nutrient cycling.
Tropical rainforest is the most productive
of natural land ecosystems.
The net primary production (biomass
produced allowing for losses due to
respiration) is 2.2 kg m–2 y–1, nearly twice
that of temperate forests.
cont…
Tropical rainforests are characterized by :
 Vertical stratification (layering) of vegetation .
Tropical rain forests may be divided into five
vertical layers :
emergent trees,
upper canopy,
lower canopy,
shrub understory, and
 a ground layer of herbs and ferns
cont..
cont..
The largest and most continuous region
of rain forest in the world is in the
Amazon basin of South America.
The second largest is located in
Southeast Asia, and the third largest is in
West Africa around the Gulf of Guinea
and in the Congo basin.
Cont…
 The main biomes in Ethiopia

There are several biomes to be found

within Ethiopia like:
tropical dry forest
temperate grassland
tropical montane
dry grassland
 cont..
Tropical dry forest found in:
The Rift Valley and eastern lowlands together with some dry
grassland areas
Temperate grasslands:
Cover the higher altitudes of the western and eastern

highlands.
Tropical montane found in:
Wetter portions of the western highlands:

 Consist of tropical montane vegetation with dense,

luxuriant forests and rich undergrowth.

Drier sections at lower elevations of the western and

eastern highlands
 Contain tropical montane forest mixed with grassland.

Dry grassland :
Covers portions of the Denakil Plain.
Aquatic Biomes
 Aquatic biome/ecosystem
scientists classify terrestrial ecosystems according to their
dominant plant life-forms, classification of aquatic ecosystems is
largely based on features of the physical environment.
Based on salinity of water, the two main category of aquatic
biome are:
Marine biome/saltwater/
Freshwater biome
These categories are further divided into several ecosystem types based on
substrate, depth and flow of water, and type of dominant organisms
(typically plants).
Aquatic Ecosystems are characterized by:
Temperature
Sunlight Depth
Oxygen Concentration
Available Nutrients
Freshwater biome/ ecosystem
Freshwater have a low salt concentration—usually
less than 1%.
Freshwater ecosystems are classified on the basis of
water depth and flow.
Freshwater includes:
 lotic/moving water/
Streams & Rivers

lentic/standing water
 Ponds
& Lakes
Wetlands- water logged land
1. Ponds and lakes
They vary in depth and size.
Ponds may be :
 seasonal.

small
body of freshwater.
Most ponds and lakes have outlet streams.

Lakes”
 larger
body of freshwater, usually drained by a stream.
 may exist for hundreds of years or more.

May have limited species diversity since they are often isolated from one
another and from other water sources like rivers and oceans.
Divided into three different “zones” determined by depth and distance
from the shoreline:
littoral zone
limnetic zone
profundal zone
Lake and ponds
Major zones of a lake
 Littoral Zone/

shallow-water zone.
Warmest - absorb more of the Sun’s heat.
sustains a fairly diverse community, which can
include several species of algae (like diatoms),
rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing
snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes, and
amphibians
the egg and larvae stages of some insects are
found in this zone
 Limnetic Zone

near-surface open water surrounded by the

littoral zone
well-lighted (like the littoral zone).
Inhabiting this zone are :
microscopicphytoplankton (autotrophs) and
Zooplankton (heterotrophs)

 nekton - free-swimming organisms such

as fish.

 Profundal Zone

Plankton have short life spans—when they

die, they fall into the deep-water part of the
lake/pond
much colder and denser than the other two
little light penetrates all the way through
the limnetic zone into the profundal zone
animals are decomposers
A eutrophic lake
 Class work
Contrast the vertical stratification of an aquatic community
with that of a terrestrial community.
Figure2.3. A vertical view of communities from aquatic to
terrestrial
Cont’d
Stratification in aquatic communities is largely physical, influenced by :

 gradients of oxygen,
 temperature, and light.


Stratification in terrestrial communities is largely biological.

Dominant vegetation affects the physical structure of the community and
the microclimatic conditions of temperature, moisture, and light.
In the summer, well-stratified lakes have a layer of:

 the epilimnion- well-mixed water
 the metalimnion- characterized by a thermocline (a steep and rapid decline in


temperature relative to the waters above and below);

 the hypolimnion,- a deep, cold layer of dense water at about 4 o C


 , often low in oxygen; and a layer of bottom sediments.



Two other structural layers are also recognized, based on light

penetration: an upper zone, the photic zone, where the availability of
light supports photosynthesis primarily by phytoplankton; and
 In deeper waters, the aphotic zone, an area without light. The bottom
zone, where decomposition is most active, is referred to as the benthic
zone.
 2. Streams & Rivers
Bodies of flowing water moving in one direction
 found everywhere
characteristics change during the journey from the
source to the mouth
temperature is cooler at the source than it is at the
mouth
 water is also clearer, has higher oxygen levels, and
freshwater fish such as trout and heterotrophs can be
found there
Poor in diversity of species since it is harsh
environment like desert of terrestrial ecosystem.
 3. Wetlands(buffer zone)
Wetlands are areas of standing water that support aquatic
plants
It includes: Marshes, swamps, and bogs are all considered
wetlands
Mangroves swamps- are large woody trees with a dense,
complex root system that grows downward from the
branches
marshes are intertidal flats covered by grassy vegetation.
Water logged land and nutrient rich environment.
Plant adapted to the very moist and humid conditions are
called hydrophytes
Cont…
Contains highest species diversity of
all ecosystems (the biological
supermarket).
Filter and absorb water-prevents
pollutants from entering ground water
(the kidney of the earth).
Control Flooding-absorb river
overflow.
 Marine biome/ecosystem
Cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface and include
• oceans,
• coral reefs, and
• estuaries
largest of all the ecosystems
dominate the Earth’s surface
contains great diversity of species
separate zones:
Intertidal

Pelagic

Abyssal

Benthic

 
cont…
 cont..
Intertidal Zone
Where the ocean meets the land
sometimes submerged and at other times exposed
 waves and tides come in and out
communities are constantly changing
Pelagic – Open Ocean
waters further from the land, basically the open
ocean
Like ponds and lakes, there is thermal

stratification with a constant mixing of warm and

cold ocean currents.
 cont…
Benthic Zone
The ocean floor contains organisms
that live attached to or near the
bottom.
These organisms are called benthos.

The ocean floor is called the Coral

Reefs
 Coral reefs
Found in tropical coastal waters, are named for the coral
animals whose calcium carbonate skeletons make up their
primary structure benthic zone.
Most diverse of all marine habitats.
Have many strata like a rainforest.
A structure formed by coral polyps, tiny animals that live in
colonies.
Coral polyps form a hard, stony, branching structure made
of limestone.
New polyps attach to old coral and gradually build the reef
 Estuaries
Enclosed body of water formed where freshwater from
rivers and streams flows into the ocean, mixing with the
salty sea water
Estuaries and the lands surrounding them are places of
transition from land to sea, and from fresh to salt water.
Estuaries are sometimes called “marine nurseries”
habitats for many juvenile organisms, especially for fishes
many fish are born and grow up in estuaries and migrate
to the open ocean.
Estuaries have a diverse flora and fauna and tremendous
productivity.
cont…
 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is a measure of the overall variability

of life on the planet (or a local area) and it
includes:
1. Genetic diversity – refers to the genetic
variability of each species(genes, alleles).
2. Species diversity- refers to the variety of
species within a region. It can be measured
in:
 A. Species richness-the number of species present in a
defined geographical unit.
cont…
B. Species abundance -. Refers to the
relative numbers among species. For
example, the number of species of
plants, animals and microorganisms may
be more in an area than that recorded in
another area
C. Taxonomic diversity -or
phylogenetic diversity – refers to the
genetic relationships between different
groups of species
3. Ecosystem diversity- refers to the diversity of
habitat, the ecological variability of each species and
the broad difference between each ecosystem type
Distinguish between species richness and species
evenness.
Index of diversity (simpson’s
Index diversity)

a number indicating an ecosystem’s

biodiversity or used to give a picture of the
ecosystem as a whole.
Formula :
 Cont…
In this formula,
d - is the index of diversity,
N - is the total number of

organisms in the area and

 n - is the total number of

organisms of each species.

Cont….
Example table 2.3 - Each area contains the same six
species and the same total numbers of organisms (100)
yet the areas are clearly very different.
solution:
Cont…
Conclusion:
In area 1, only species A is really
successful and dominates the area.
 In area 2, all the species are more or less
equally successful.
 In area 3, three of the six species
dominate the area.
cont..
A low value for the index of diversity,
suggests:
An area dominated by one or just a few

species because they outcompete other similar

types that could survive in that environment.
less stable ecosystem

 The environment is likely to be hostile/

harsh.
 Environmental change is likely to be having

quite serious effects.

 Example: -.

Lichens colonization of bare rock

Rhododendron bushes(acid loving
plant) very effectively prevent any other
plant from growing in the same area by:
shading them so completely that they
cannot photosynthesise;
They also secrete chemicals into the
soil that inhibit the germination of
other seeds.
Botanical Name Rhododendron spp.
Plant Type Shrub
Sun Exposure Part Sun, Shade
Soil Type Any
Soil pH Acidic
Bloom Time Spring, Summer, Fall
Flower Color Pink, Purple, Red, White, Yellow
Cont…
A higher value for the index diversity
suggests :
A number of successful species with no
species completely dominating the area and
a more stable ecosystem.
More ecological niches are available and the
environment is likely to be less hostile.
 Environmental change is likely to be less
damaging to the ecosystem as a whole unless
it affects all the plants present.
Example of a stable ecosystem with high
species diversity is Tropical rainforests.
cont…
Q1. Suppose sites A, B, C and D have
Simpson’s Index of Diversity (d). Values
of 20, 8, 16 and 3, respectively, which site
in dominated by one or just a few species?
A. Site A
B. Site B
C. Site C
D. Site D
The threats of biodiversity
Most of the factors currently threatening
biodiversity are anthropogenic in nature,
i.e. induced or influenced by humans.
These factors include:
deforestation, and
The impact of agriculture.
Over-exploitation
Accidental or deliberate
introduction of exotic species
How has deforestation affected
biodiversity?
The effect of deforestation (felling tropical forest):
Reduction in species diversity
Reduction of removing CO2 from the

atmosphere and burned trees added carbon

dioxide to the atmosphere. As a result, the local and
global cycling of carbon is affected.
A reduction in the amount of nitrogen returned

to the soil.
A secondary succession will take place.
 Cont…
It is estimated that, currently, 20% of the Amazon
rainforest has been felled since 1970.
This is expected to rise to 40% by 2025, leaving only 60%
of the rainforest that was present in 1970. We’re getting
through it at an alarming rate!
The rainforests must be conserved and felling and
replanting in a planned cycle over a number of years can
do this.
Burger
 Burger
When anyone eats a quarter-pounder, they
should bear in mind that to make that one burger
using South American beef, it took:
the clearing of 5 m2 of rainforest (to create

the grazing land for the cattle)

 the destruction of 75 kg of living matter,

including 20–30 different plant species, up

to 100 insect species and dozens of bird,
mammal and reptile species.
 The impact of agriculture.

What are the effects of

agriculture on biodiversity?
cont…
Reduce biodiversity by several reasons. Including:
Monoculturing - Large areas of land area is dominated by just one
species, drastically reducing the number of niches for other
organisms to fill.
Use of pesticides and herbicides chemicals- reduces pests and

the number of habitats and niches.

overgrazing by stock animals – reduces the availability of forage

and woody plant species for other animals

introduction of improved crop varieties – reduce the genetic

diversity of the particular crop plant as only the ‘improved’ variety

is used
Crop rotation - the rotation would be carried out with
different timings in different fields, so that all crops were
always available. This meant that different animals could
find different habitats. This practice increase biodiversity.
 The status of biodiversity in
Africa
Africa is rich in biological diversity.
Areas that have high plant species
richness often also have high mammal
species richness– and vice versa. The
reason for this:
Plants provide habitats and niches

for animals.
cont…
cont..
There is one important exception the
Fynbos of South Africa has one of the highest
concentrations of plant species anywhere in the
world.
Fynbos of South Africa have very high plant
species richness, but do not have
correspondingly high mammal species
richness. This is because of :
The plants grow on very nutrient poor soils. So
there just isn’t the protein in the plants to
support a large number of mammals.
 African biodiversity include:
More than a fifth of the approximately 10, 000 bird
species in the world are found in Africa; about 1600
bird species are endemic to SSA.
a quarter (1229 species) of the world’s approximately
4700 mammal species occur in Africa, including about
960 species in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and 137
species in Madagascar. The eastern and southern
savannahs host large populations of mammals,
including at least 79 species of antelope.
about 950 species of amphibians are found in Africa
 Biodiversity in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is an important biodiversity centre

in both plants and animals including
domestic species. This because of:
The presence of wide range in
altitude and climate, the isolation of
the highlands of Ethiopia
the presence of several different
biomes within the country
cont…
One estimate suggests that:
There are between 6500 and 6700 plant species in the
country. This represents the fifth most diverse flora in Africa.
About 10–12% of these plant species are endemic to Ethiopia
(approximately 1150 plant species).
Ethiopia is one of the 12 centres of origin (Vavilov centres) of
cultivated crops.
There are 11 cultivated crops, which have their centre of
genetic diversity in Ethiopia. These are:
Coffea arabica – Coffee
Eragrostis tef – Tef
Ensete ventriculum – Ensete
Coccinia abyssinica – Anchote
cont…
Guizotia abyssinica – Niger seed (Nug)
Brassica carinata – Ethiopian rape
(Gomenzer)
 Carthamus tinctures – Safflower (Suf)
 Sorghum Spp. – Sorghum
 Hordeum Spp. – Barley
Linum usitatissimum – Linseed (Telba)
 Ricinus communis – Castor bean (Gulo)
Cont…
Ethiopia is also an important centre of genetic diversity
of forage plants (a plant that is grown for animal feed).
About 46 legumes are endemic to Ethiopia. They
include:
species of Trifolium (clover),
 Vigna (a type of bean) and
 Lablab (all parts of the plant are edible).

These plants, used as animal feed, are

important because they add nitrogen to the
soil in which they grow as they have
nitrogen-fixing bacteria living symbiotically
in their roots.
 Table 2.4 A summary of the vertebrate
biodiversity of Ethiopia
cont…
In terms of the biodiversity of its avifauna
(birds), Ethiopia is one of the most significant
countries in mainland Africa.
At present, 69 Important Bird Areas (which
are also important for large numbers of other
groups of animals) are identified by the
Ethiopian Wildlife & Natural History Society
(EWNHS). These include already existing
protected areas and many other additional sites.
The threats of Ethiopian biodiversity

The biodiversity in Ethiopia is under

threat. These threats grouped in to two:
• Practice with direct effects on
biodiversity
• Practice with indirect effects on
biodiversity
 Practice with direct effects on
biodiversity includes:
Deforestation- leading to habitat shrinkage and soil erosion.
fuelwood collection and illegal logging
Overgrazing by stock animals- reduces the availability of
forage and woody plant species for other animals.
Introduction of improved crop varieties – reduce the genetic
diversity.
Overhunting (poaching) – directly reduces the numbers of
the species hunted.
 Introduction of alien invasive species – these often
outcompete native species for the available resources,
sometimes making native species locally extinct.
Practice with indirect effects on biodiversity
includes:

high population growth

undervaluation of the biodiversity
resources
legal and institutional systems that
promote unsustainable exploitation
disregard of traditional communal
(range) land management systems
 Hot spots of biodiversity

Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed across

the geographical regions of the earth.
Certain regions of the world are very rich in
biodiversity. We call such areas as “mega
diversity zones”. We also refer to them as “hot-
spots”.
Certain regions of the world exhibit both high
species richness and endemism. British ecologist
Norman Myers defined these regions of unusually
high diversity as hotspots.
Cont…
The designation of a region as a hotspot of biological
diversity is based on two factors:
Overall diversity of the region and
Significance of impact from human activities
The hot spots are the richest and the most threatened
reservoirs of biodiversity on the earth. The criteria for
determining a hot spot are:
i) The area should support >1500 endemic species,

ii) It must have lost over 70 % of the original

habitat
cont…
Plants have been used as qualifiers because they are easy
to identify and census as well as providing the basis of
diversity in other taxonomic groups.
Twenty-five biodiversity hot spots have been identified
in the world.
The eastern tropical montane forests of
Ethiopia have been recognised as a
hotspot for biodiversity conservation because
of the exceptionally high concentration of
endemic species and habitat loss.
 The Ethiopian Institute of Biodiversity
Conservation Action plan in 2005

Reviews the current situation and makes

numerous recommendations.
Some of these recommendations are listed below
in two categories – those based on:
Ecological considerations and
socioeconomic considerations
 Ecological considerations

Accelerate recovery by enrichment planting of target

species in degraded remnant forests.
 Establish corridors to enhance the biodiversity and
eventually the viability of fragmented forests,
particularly in the central and northern highlands.
Establishment of buffer zones (through tree planting) to
stop further degradation of isolated forest fragments.
 Planting native woody species may be necessary on sites
lacking of vegetation (for example, steep slopes).
cont…
Establishment of tree plantations, which
can serve as nurse crops, on highly degraded
sites.
 Establishing area enclosures may be
necessary to enhance natural regeneration
and diversity of the native flora, particularly
in arid and semi-arid regions.
 Control or eradicate alien invasive species
using integrated pest management.
 Socioeconomic considerations

Allow meaningful participation by all

stakeholders
 Consider local socioeconomic needs in choices
of approaches and options in matters impacting
on local biodiversity.
Strengthen local organisations.
Make land and tree tenure completely secure.
 Formulate policies that promote sustainable
utilisation and conservation of biodiversity.
 Significance of biological diversity/biodiversity

In 2000, the Millennium Assessment (MA) was

made in many aspects of biodiversity. The MA
findings suggest that biodiversity loss contributes
to:
• worsening health
• increasing insecurity of food supply
• increasing vulnerability
• lower material wealth
• worsening social relations
• less freedom for choice and action
cont…
Other dangers that result from the loss of
biodiversity are:
Continued felling of forests leads to
increased flooding.
Loss of medicinal plants
Loss of some sheep from South
America produces anti-cancer.
 Cont…
Benefits that humans gain from biodiversity are
collectively known as ecosystem services.
A loss of biodiversity will reduce ecosystem
benefits locally and globally.
Benefits arising from the conservation of
biodiversity includes three groups:
• Ecosystem services
• Biological resources
• Social benefits
Ecosystem services includes :

Protection ofwater sources

Soil formation and protection
Nutrient storage and cycling
Pollution breakdown and absorption
Contribution to climate stability
Maintenance of ecosystem
 Biological resources includes:

 Maintenance of wild gene pool-is necessary to

-increase resistance to disease
- improved productivity
- provide tolerance to different
environment to food crops.
Gene pool – is the total amount of genetic
diversity present in a particular population
Photosynthesis
Social benefits includes :

Commercial use (sale natural

resources)
Educational value
Recreational use
Cultural value and aesthetic
reasons.
cont…
 Past, present and future extinction rates of
biodiversity
Cont…
Figure 2.28 shows that, if we do nothing, and allow
species extinctions to continue at the present rate,
then there will be a serious reduction in biodiversity by
2050.
Look at the overall trend.
Our biodiversity has fallen from 90% of its
potential in 1900, to 70% in 2000 and it is
projected to fall to 60% by 2050 and, carrying on
the projection, to 50% by 2100, with most of this
biodiversity in areas such as desert and tundra that
are difficult to exploit.
We are losing 10% of our biodiversity every 50

years.
Cont…
There is considerable evidence to suggest that the rate of
species loss (loss of biodiversity) will actually increase in
the future, as figure 2.29 shows.
 Principles of conservation

Conservation - is the management of the

earth’s resources in a way, which aims to restore
and maintain the balance between human
requirements and those of other species.
Every future generation of humans has the right
to enjoy and make use of the biological resources
of the planet that are available to us today.
cont…
Conservation encourages us to use the resources
in a sustainable manner so that future
generations may do the same. This means that we
must not continue to:
overfish the oceans
 fell rainforest in the current manner
 reduce the genetic diversity of stock
animals and crop plants by selective
breeding
grow vast areas of cereals in
monoculture
Cont…
There are three guiding ideas of conservation:
research
minimum intervention – the balances
within and between ecosystems are delicate
and can easily be upset, and
 Repair rather than replace – it is always
better to try to help an ecosystem to repair any
damage rather than try to replace it.
The process of restoring damaged habitat is called
reclamation/rehabilitation.
cont…
The ecological principles that form the basis of
conservation of biodiversity are:
Any protection of varieties of species will support

biodiversity
maintaining habitats is fundamental to conserving

species
 large areas usually contain more species than

smaller areas with similar habitats

 disturbances to habitats shape the characteristics of

populations, communities and ecosystems, and

 Climate change will increasingly influence all types

of ecosystems.
Cont…
The key to maintaining biodiversity will be to maintain
habitats.
Conservation efforts can be grouped into the following
two categories:
In-situ (on-site) conservation includes:
The protection of plants and animals within :

their natural habitats or in protected areas.

 Protected areas are land or sea dedicated to
protect and maintain biodiversity.
Cont..
Ex-situ (off-site) conservation of plants and
animals outside their natural habitats. These
include:
botanical gardens
Zoo, gene banks, seek bank,
 Tissue culture and cryopreservation.
 Tree-growing project

Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations that form

between the roots of most plant species and fungi.
Organic molecules like sugars and amino acids pass to
the fungus and inorganic nutrients move to the plant,
thereby providing a critical linkage between the plant
root and soil.
 The hyphae (threads) of the fungi grow around the
root, greatly extending the area available for nutrient
uptake, with some hyphae penetrating the root and, in
some cases, individual cells.
 Group discussion

Why mycorrhizal plants are often better able to

tolerate environmental stresses than are non-
mycorrhizal plants?
 Cont…
 In infertile soils, nutrients taken up by the
mycorrhizal fungi can lead to improved
plant growth and reproduction.
As a result, mycorrhizal plants are often
better able to tolerate environmental
stresses than are non-mycorrhizal plants.
Population
Cont…
In ecology, a population is a group of
individuals of the same species that occupy a
given areaat a particular time.
Populations are not static. Like ecosystems they
are constantly changing.
A habitat is an area where a population lives and
finds the nutrients, water, living space and other
essential resources it needs to survive.
A niche is a very narrow range where a species
fits within a habitat.
 Group discussion

How can several populations

live in the same area?
 How can several populations live in the same
area?

This is due to each exploits a different habitat in that

area.
Example: In a pond, there are populations of many
different organisms.
Plankton exploit the open water regions of the

pond
decomposers inhabit the detritus found at the

bottom of the pond

 Snails browse the surface of the sediment at the

bottom of the pond and graze small organisms.

Cont…
Sometimes, different organisms can share the same
habitat. However, they make different demands on that
habitat.
This combination of habitat and the demands made is
called the ecological niche
The ecological niche of an organism describes its role
within a habitat.
Example 1: both floating plants and tadpoles are found
in the open water habitat. But the plants use sunlight,
carbon dioxide, water and minerals from the water,
whereas the tadpoles feed on the larvae of insects. They
have different ecological niches.
 Cont…
Example2: both blue tits and great tits spend much of
their time foraging in trees for insects and insect larvae.
When one or the other species is present, they forage at
about the same height. However, if both species are
present in the same trees, they forage at different heights
and so avoid competing for the same niche.
The competitive exclusion principle - If two species
are occupying the same niche, they will compete for the
same available resources in the niche. One will be more
successful and the other will be made locally extinct.
Research shows that two species cannot normally
occupy the same niche but they may share the same
habitat, if they have different ecological niches
cont…
Three Key Features of Populations
Size: number of individuals in an area
Density: measurement of population per unit
area or unit volume
Pop. Density = # of individuals ÷ unit of space
Dispersion: describes the spacing of organisms
relative to each other
• Clumped
• Uniform
• Random
 Factors influence the sizes of populations

There are three factors that directly affect

numbers:
Natality – birth rate
Mortality – death rate
Migration – movement into
(immigration) and out of (emigration)
the area
 Cont…

Immigration

+
+ -
Natality Population Mortality

-
Emigration
Cont…
Natality and mortality are clearly linked in their
influences:
If natality exceeds mortality (more are born

than die), the population numbers will

increase
 if mortality exceeds natality (more die than

are born), the population numbers will

decrease
 if mortality and natality are equal, the

population numbers will remain the same

cont…
emigration and immigration are linked in their
influences:
If immigration exceeds emigration (more

enter than leave), the population numbers

will increase
 if emigration exceeds immigration (more

leave than enter), the population numbers

will decrease
if emigration and immigration are equal, the

population numbers will remain the same

Other factors influence mortality and natality
They influence how quickly a population increases in size or
decreases in size. These
factors can be divided into two main categories:
Biotic factors (Density –dependent factor) – the

effects of other organisms of the same species or of a

different species. These includes:
• Competition:
• Predation
• Parasites and disease
• Human activities: unwise practice such as
pesticides, fire, deforestation, pollution, illegal
logging, dam construction, land use for
agriculture.
A biotic factor (density-independent factor)
 How the biotic factors affect the population
size?

Competition
a. Intra-specific competition – competition between
members of the same species
Competition between members of the same species can
operate in two main ways:
reducing the resources to all of the population can

reduce their fertility and so reduce population

growth, and
Reducing the resources to just some of the

population (as others compete more effectively)

means that they die whilst the others reproduce, but
population growth is still reduced.
Cont…
Intra-specific competition is a major factor in
controlling the populations of predators.

when the population of prey begins to fall, there is
intra-specific competition between the predators
for the remaining prey, leading to a population
decline. This allows the numbers of the prey to
recover.
There can also be intra-specific competition between
plants.
intra-specific competition between the

germinating seedlings, resulting in fewer, smaller

plants surviving.
 b. Inter-specific competition
competition between members of different species
The competitive exclusion principle states that two
species cannot occupy the same niche, this is not
absolute. The following can happen in appropriate
circumstances:
one of the two species outcompetes the other
 both species suffer a reduction as they are
nearly equal in their ability to ‘harvest’ the
resource
 Coexistence is possible if the two species do
not use the resource in the same way.
cont…
 E.g. Inter-specific competition between two species of
barnacles – Balanus and Chthalamus
Barnacles are a kind of crustacean that lives on
rocky shores.
Chthalamus and Balanus are different species of

barnacle.
 Chthalamus can live anywhere in the intertidal

zone (between high tide and low tide).

Balanus cannot live in the upper.

On beaches where Balanus is absent, Chthalamus

occupies all three zones.

 
Cont..
Cont…
About a famous investigation into inter-specific
competition in Paramecium
In 1934 G F Gause grew two different species of
Paramecium (a unicellular organism) in a culture medium
of oatmeal and yeast.
 Initially, he grew each species in isolation and

monitored the population densities.

Then, he grew the species together and, again,

monitored the population densities.

His results are shown in the graphs in Figure 2.37.

 Gause concluded that if the two species utilize the same

resource in the same way, then one will totally outcompete
the other, which will become locally extinct.
Figure 2.37. Results from Gause’s experiments
A biotic factor (density-independent factor)
 It is the effects of factors in the physical
environment :
 Light
 Temperature
 carbon dioxide concentration
 oxygen concentration
 physical space, etc.
 How do populations grow?

All populations show the same pattern of growth.

Idealized models describe two kinds of population
growth:
ExponentialGrowth
 Logistic /arithmetic growth
In arithmetic/logistic growth
The numbers increase by a set amount in each time
period.
This produces a uniform rate of growth over the time
period
Cont..
In exponential growth
Numbers increase by an increasing amount
in each time period.
The population doubles in each time
period, producing an ever increasing growth
rate that is clearly not sustainable in nature
Cont..
Exponential growth curve
Arithmetic growth curve
 Carrying Capacity (k)
The carrying capacity of a population is the number that
the environment is capable of supporting (or ‘carrying’)
at that time. This can change from year to year.
The maximum population size that can be

supported by the available resources

There can only be as many organisms as the

environmental resources can support

Discussion
Why the population size decreases
after reaches carrying capacity?
 Cont…
Declining birth rate or increasing death rate after
the population reaches carrying capacity are
caused by several factors including:
Limited food supply
The build up of toxic wastes
Increased disease
Predation
The main phases in a population growth curve

The four stages of a population growth

curve are:
lag phase
log phase
stationary phase
decline phase
Cont…
Cont..
 Human population growth
 We have come from a population of :
less than 5 million 10 000 years ago to a

population of 6.8 billion at the end of 2009.

Estimates of the carrying capacity of the Earth
for humans average at around 10 billion.
The human population may reach around 12
billion by the year 2200. This is beyond the
carrying capacity of the Earth.
Cont..
Cont..
Cont..
The population has been increasing in
industrial era quickly over due to:
The quality and quantity of food available

 Decreased the impact of disease-causing

organisms with improved sanitation and

medical care.
Improved health and technology have

lowered death rates

Cont..
In countries with the highest population
growth rates, the high growth rate is one
factor in preventing or slowing
development. this is due to:
much more difficult to implement

education programmes,
much more difficult to implement

health programmes, proper sanitation

 Demography

The statistical study of populations, allows predictions

to be made about how population will change.
Demographic transition
A model that seeks to explain the transformation of
countries from having high birth and death rates to low
birth and death rates.
The stages of development of the human population of a
country can be represented in the demographic
transition as it changes from a pre-agricultural society to
an industrial society and finally post-industrial society.
 Cont…
Why doesn’t environmental resistance take
effect?
Altering their environment
Technological advances
The cultural revolution
The agricultural revolution
The industrial-medical revolution
Cont..
Cont..
Notice that in the second and third stages of the demographic
transition, death rates fall before birth rates. This creates a
period when the population is increasing.
In the final stages, birth rates and death rates are low and the
population is stable, with either a slow increase or a slow
decrease.
Most developed countries are in one of these two final stages of
the demographic transition, whereas developing countries are
still in one of the two middle stages.
As a result most of the population growth is occurring in
developing countries.
Rapid growth slows the transition to the later
stages.
In the demographic transition, the relative numbers of young
and old people changes.
Age pyramid /distribution

Age pyramids show the percentage of

males and females in each age group in
a population.
Used to predict future population

growth
Expanding, stationary and contracting

populations have different age

pyramids.
Age pyramid in developing countries
Broad base in the population i.e.;
shows that large numbers of
children are still being born.
 The population is increasing.

Less life expectancy

Cont…
Age pyramid in developed countries

The population numbers are

increasing slowly.
Contracting or stationary age
pyramid
Life expectancy is greater
Cont…
 Cont…
Rapid population growth can be
controlled by:
contraception programmes

education about sex

better provision of resources to

agriculture
THE END