English Lexicology (II) : "Without Grammar Very Little Can Be Conveyed, Without Vocabulary Nothing Can Be Conveyed."

English Lexicology
(II)
“Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary
nothing can be conveyed.”
Contents
 5. Word-Formation I: the Major Processes
 6. Word-Formation II: the Minor Processes
 7. Motivation
To be continued
English Lexicology(II) 2
Chapter 5 Word-Formation I:
The Major Processes
5.1 General Remarks

5.2 Prefixation
5.3 Suffixation
5.4 Conversion
5.5 Compounding
5.1 General Remarks
 The three major processes
 affixation or derivation (17.5%)
 Prefixation
 suffixation
 conversion (10.5%)
 composition or compounding (27%)
5.2 Prefixation
 The definition of prefixation
 Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes
to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of
the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an
insignificant number of class-changing prefixes
 Non-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfair
 Class-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger, form-
deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollege
5.2 Prefixation
 The classification of prefixes
 In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are
classified according to their source, but this does not
seem to help from a practical point of view. It seems
more helpful to classify the most important
productive prefixes by their meaning into the
following ten categories:
5.2 Prefixation
 1) Negative prefixes
a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy,
dis- dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree
in- Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable,
illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational,
irregular
non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic,
nonadjustable, nonalcoholic
un- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest
5.2 Prefixation
 Order  Disorder
 Literate  Illiterate
 Symmetry  Asymmetry
 Governmental  Nongovernmental
 Relevant  Irrelevant
 Productive  Unproductive
 Believable  Unbelievable
 Vulnerable  Invulnerable
 Sane  Insane
 Related  Unrelated
 Aligned  Nonaligned
 Mature  Immature
5.2 Prefixation
 2) Reversative or privative
de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed,
denationalize
un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask
dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested
5.2 Prefixation
 Centralize  Decentralize
 Plane  Deplane
 Infect  Disinfect
 Zip  Unzip
 Regulate  Deregulate
 Possess  Dispossess
 Pollute  Depollute
5.2 Prefixation
 3) Pejorative prefixes
mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice,
misgiving
mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction,
maldevelopment
pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-
friend
5.2 Prefixation
 4) Prefixes of degree or size
hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious
ultra- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative
mini- minibus, minicamera, miniskirt
out- outdo, outgrown, outlive
over- overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden
under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate
super- supermarket, superpower, superstar
sub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom
5.2 Prefixation
 Computer  Minicomputer
 Critical  Ultracritic /hypercritic
 Conscious  Subconscious
 Natural  Supernatural
 Sensitive  Hypersensitive/ultrasensitive
 Simple
 Oversimple
 Outnumber
 Number
 Understatement
 Statement  Subculture
 culture
5.2 Prefixation
 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude
co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation
counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive,

counterattack, counterculture, countermeasure
anti- anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial,
anticancer, antibody
pro- pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , pro-
student, proslavery
5.2 Prefixation
 6) Locative prefixes
fore- forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword
inter- international, intergovernmental, intertwine,

interdisciplinary, intercollege
trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant
tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication
5.2 Prefixation
 View  Interview
 Conference  teleconference
 Continental  Intercontinental
 Ground  Foreground
 Cast  Telecast
 Specific  Transpacific
 Racial  Transracial
 Shore  Foreshore
5.2 Prefixation
 7) Prefixes of time and order
ex- ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convict
fore- foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn
pre- premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital
post- post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral
5.2 Prefixation
 8) Number prefixes
uni-/mono- unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle, unidimensional,
uniform, unipolar, monoxide, monocrystal, monogamy,
monologue
bi-/di- bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy,
disyllable
tri- triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual
multi-/poly- multipurpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual, polyatomic,
polycrystal, polygamy
semi- semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual, semicolony,
semiautomatic
5.2 Prefixation
 Lingual  Unilingual, bilingual, trilingual,
multilingual
 Lateral
 Unilateral, bilateral, trilateral,
 Polar multilateral
 Dimensional  Unipolar, bipolar, tripolar,
multipolar
 Unidimensional,
bidimensional, tridimensional
(three-dimensional),
multidimensional
5.2 Prefixation
 9) Conversion prefixes
a- aloud, asleep, aglow, awash
be- belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch
en- endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower
5.2 Prefixation
 10) Miscellaneous prefixes
Extra- Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial
Neo- Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism, neo-fascism, Neolithic
Pan- Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism
…… ………..
5.3 Suffixation
 The definition of suffixation
 Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding
suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily
change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only
a small semantic role, their primary function being to
change the grammatical function of stems. In other
words, they mainly change the word class. However,
they may also add attached meaning to the stem.
5.3 Suffixation
 The classification of suffixes
 Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we
shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into
 1) noun suffixes
 2) adjective suffixes
 3) adverb suffixes
 4) verb suffixes
5.3 Suffixation
 1) Noun suffixes
 Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the following
five kinds.
 Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract)
 Deverbal nouns
 De-adjectival nouns
 Noun and adjective suffixes
5.3 Suffixation
Denominal nouns (concrete)
-eer auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer, profiteer,
racketeer
-er Londoner, teenager, villager
-ess actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness
-let booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet
5.3 Suffixation
Denominal nouns (abstract)
-age baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage
-dom freedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom
-ery/-ry drudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery
-ism idealism, optimism, individualism, consumerism
-ship dictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship
-ocrasy aristocracy, democracy, meritocracy
-hood boyhood, brotherhood, neighborhood, adulthood
-ful handful, mouthful, plateful, tubful
5.3 Suffixation
Deverbal nouns
-ant contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant
-ee interviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee
-er/-or driver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator,
supervisor, actor, window-shopper
-ation foundation, exploration, nomination, starvation
-ing building, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing
-al refusal, revival, survival, arrival, dismissal
-ment amazement, arrangement, movement, government
-age breakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage
5.3 Suffixation
De-adjectival nouns
-ity diversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility,
actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability
-ness accurateness, falseness, kindness, selfishness, happiness,
largeness, frankness, unexpectedness, thickness, goodness
5.3 Suffixation
Nouns and adjective suffixes
-ese Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese, officialese, journalese
-(i)an Darwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean,
Indonesian, Russian
-ist communist, pianist, specialist, socialist
5.3 Suffixation
 2) Adjective Suffixes
Denominal suffixes
-ed dogged, rugged, pointed, chocolate-flavored
-ful delightful, successful, faithful, meaningful
-ish childish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish
-less homeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless
-like childlike, ladylike, statesmanlike
-ly friendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly
-y milky, sandy, hairy, meaty
5.3 Suffixation
Denominal suffixes
-ic (-atic) ethnic, economic, historic, problematic
-ous (-ious, ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous,
-eous) erroneous, courteous
-al (-ial, -ical) accidental, professional, residential, musical,
philosophical
5.3 Suffixation
Deverbal suffixes
-able (-ible, debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable,
-uble) permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble
-ive (-ative, attractive, reflective, productive, negative,
-sive) decorative, talkative, affirmative, expansive,
explosive, decisive
5.3 Suffixation
 3) Adverb Suffixes
-ly smoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally
-ward(s) downward, eastward, homeward, forward
-wise clockwise, lengthwise, weatherwise, educationwise,
taxwise, moneywise
5.3 Suffixation
 4) Verb suffixes
-ate Originate, hyphenate
-en Deepen, harden, strengthen, hasten
-ify Solidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify
-ize(-ise) Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize, specialize
5.3 Suffixation
 False  Falsify
 Sterile  Sterilize
 Intense  Intensify
 Fat  Fatten
 Horror  Horrify
 Memory  Memorize
 Apology  Apologize
5.4 Conversion
 The definition of conversion
 Conversion is a word-formation whereby a word of a
certain word-class is shifted into a word of another
without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero
derivation( 零位派生 ).
5.4 Conversion
 Major types of conversion
 Noun-verb conversion
 Verb-noun conversion
 Adjective-noun conversion
5.4 Conversion
 Noun-verb conversion
 He elbowed his way through the crowd.
 Problems snowballed by the hour.
 The newspaper headlined his long record of
accomplishments.
 Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to Camp
David.
5.4 Conversion
Changes of pronunciation and spelling
 Abuse  Abuse
 Advice  Advise
 House  House
 Use  Use
 Belief  Believe
 Grief  Grieve
 Shelf  Shelve
 mouth  Mouth
5.4 Conversion
 He was admitted to the university after a three-year
wait.
 This little restaurant is quite a find.
 It is a good buy.
 He took a close look at the machine.
 doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply, divide
5.4 Conversion
 Phrasal verb-noun conversion
Right branching Left branching
Break down Breakdown Break out Outbreak
Pick up Pick-up Spill over Overspill
Take over Take-over Start up Upstart
Get together Get-together Put in Input
Break through Breakthrough Keep up upkeep
5.4 Conversion
Shift of stress
 Conflict  Permit
 Abstract  Progress
 Contrast  Protest
 Decrease  Transfer
 Discount  Transplant
 Export  Survey
 Rebel  Torment
5.4 Conversion
 Partial conversion
 Complete conversion
5.4 Conversion
 Partial conversion
 Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: the deaf,
the blind, the poor, the wounded
 Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in –sh, -se, -ch): the English, the
Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch
 Denoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the sentimental,
to distinguish the false and the true, from the sublime to the ridiculous
 Denoting a single person (converted from participles): the accused,
the deceased, the deserted, the condemned
5.4 Conversion
 Complete conversion
 A native, two natives, a returned native
 He is a natural for the job.
 Tom is one of our regulars, he comes in for a drink about
this time every night.
 To them she is not a brusque crazy, but appropriately
passionate.
 They are the creatives in the advertising department.
5.5 Compounding
 The definition of compounding
 Composition or compounding is a word-formation
process consisting of joining two or more bases to
form a new unit, a compound word. It is a common
device which has been productive at every period of
the English language. Today the largest number of
new words are formed by compounding.
5.5 Compounding
 Forms of compounds
 Solid: bedtime, honeymoon
 Hyphenated: above-mentioned, town-planning
 Open: reading material, hot line
5.5 Compounding
 Types of compounds
 Noun compounds
 Adjective compounds
 Verb compounds
5.5 Compounding
 Noun compounds
 Headache, housekeeping, hot line, swimming pool,
raindrop, breakdown, biological clock, identity crisis
5.5 Compounding
 Adjective compounds
 Weather-beaten rocks, peaceloving people,
everlasting friendship, a difficult-to-operate machine,
a made-up story, an on the spot inspection, taxfree
products, fire-proof dress
5.5 Compounding
 Verb compounds
 Formed by back-formation
 house-keep from housekeeper
 windowshop from window-shopping
 mass produce from mass production
 hen-peck from hen-pecked
 spoon-feed from spoon-fed.
5.5 Compounding
 Verb compounds
 Formed by conversion
 to blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to honeymoon,
to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweet-talk, to job-hop.
Chapter 6 Word-Formation II:
The Minor Processes
6.1 Blending
6.2 Backformation
6.3 Shortening
6.4 Analogy
6.1 Blending
 The definition of blending
 Blending （拼缀法） is a process of word-
formation in which a new word is formed by
combining parts of two words. The result of such a
process is called a blend or telescopic word or
portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of
both compounding and abbreviation. Structurally
blends may be divided into four types (see page 45-
46).
6.1 Blending
 Examples
 newscast (news ＋ broadcast)
 brunch (breakfast ＋ lunch)
 smog (smoke ＋ fog)
 talkathon (talk ＋ marathon)
 slimnastics (slim ＋ gymnastics)
 videophone ( video ＋ telephone)
6.1 Blending
 sci-fi  science ＋ fiction
 hi-fi  high ＋ fidelity
 workaholic  work ＋ alcoholic
 stagflation  stagnation ＋ inflation
 Unicom  United ＋ Communications
 sitcom  situation ＋ comedy
 motel  motor ＋ hotel
 dawk  dove ＋ hawk
6.2 Backformation
 The definition of backformation
 Back-formation （逆成法） is a process of word-
formation by which a word is created by the deletion
of a supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse
derivation.
6.2 Backformation
 Examples
 edit from editor
 automate from automation
 enthuse from enthusiasm
 gloom from gloomy
 donate from donation
 brainwash from brainwashing
 sleep-walk from sleep-walking
6.3 Shortening
 Types of shortening or
abbreviation （缩略法）
 1) clipped words （剪切词） : those created by
clipping part of the word (usually a noun), leaving
only a piece of the old word. The clipped form is
normally regarded as informal.
6.3 Shortening
 2) initialisms （首字母连写词） : a type of
shortening, using the first letters of words to form a
proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an
initialism is pronounced letter by letter.
6.3 Shortening
 3) acronyms （首字母拼音词） : words formed
from the initial letters of words and pronounced as
words. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they
are pronounced as words rather than as sequences
of letters.
6.3 Shortening
 1) Clipped words
 ad=advertisement
 expo=exposition
 phone=telephone
 pro=professional
 memo=memorandum
 tec=detective
 heli or copter=helicopter
 comfy=comfortable
6.3 Shortening
Give clippings for the following words
 gym
 gymnasium
 dorm
 dormitory
 hanky
 handkerchief
 Gas
 gasoline
 kilo
 kilogram
 flu
 influenza
 biz
 business
 parachute
 chute
 refrigerator
 fridge
 taxicab
 taxi or cab
6.3 Shortening
 2) Initialisms
 IOC=International Olympic Committee
 BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation
 ISBN=International Standard Book Number
 CAD=computer assisted design
 cm=centimeter
 TB=tuberculosis
6.3 Shortening
Write out in full the following initialisms
 CPU  central processing unit
 DIY  Do it yourself
 CEO  Chief Executive Officer
 IT  Information technology
 AI  artificial intelligence
 SOS  Save our ship
 IDD  international direct dial
 GMT  Greenwich Mean Time
 VIP  very important person
 P.S.  postscript
 a.m.  ante meridiem
 p.m.  post meridiem
6.3 Shortening
 3) Acronyms
 Basic=Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
 TEFL=teaching English as a foreign language
 UNESCO=the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization
 Sars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
6.3 Shortening
Write out in full the following acronyms
 Tofel  Test of English as a foreign language
 ROM  read only memory
 NATO  The North Atlantic Treaty organization
 FIFA  Federation Internationale de Football
 Aids  Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome
 radar  Radio detecting and ranging
6.4 Analogy
 The definition of analogy （类比）
 The process by which words or phrases are created
or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the
language
6.4 Analogy
 Examples
 Marathon-----telethon, talkathon
 blue-collar workers-----white-collar workers, gray-collar
workers, pink-collar workers, gold-collar workers
 environmental pollution-----visual or eye pollution, noise
pollution, cultural pollution, graffiti pollution
 First Family-----First Lady, First Dog
 Landscape-----moonscape, marscape
 Bird’s eye------fish-eye, worm’s-eye, cat’s-eye
Chapter 7 Motivation
7.1 Conventionality and

Motivation
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
7.3 Morphological motivation
7.4 Semantic motivation
7.5 Logical motivation
7.6 Motivation and Culture
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
• Triangle of significance （词义三角）
Meaning (Concept)
Word
Form…………. Referent
 The debate over the connection
between sound and meaning
 The naturalists maintain there is a natural/intrinsic
connection between sound and meaning.
 The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that
the relations between sound and meaning are
conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a word is
a kind of linguistic social contract.
 Conventionality （约定俗成）
 What’s in a name? That we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.
-----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet
 Words have no meaning, people have meaning for
them.
------ Eric Partridge
 Conventionality
 树 ---Chinese
 木 ---Japanese
 arbre---French
 baun---Germany
 Motivation （理据）
 Motivation deals with the connection between name
(word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the
relationship between the word structure and its
meaning.
 Non-motivated and motivated
 From the point of view of motivation, the great
majority of English words are nonmotivated, since
they are conventional, arbitrary symbols.
 However, there is a small group of words that can be
described as motivated, that is, a direct or somewhat
connection between the symbol and its sense can be
readily observed.
 Examples of motivation
 The pigeon coos.
 airmail, miniskirt, hopeless
 a coat of paint
 He has a stony heart.
 The question was like the Sphinx’s riddle to them.
 Types of motivation
 Onomatopoeic motivation
 Morphological motivation
 Semantic motivation
 Logical motivation
 Motivation and Culture
 Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据） means
defining the principle of motivation by sound. Words
motivated phonetically are called onomatopoeic
words, whose pronunciation suggests the meaning.
They show a close connection between sound and
sense.
 Primary onomatopoeia
 Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of sound
by sound. Here the sound is truly an “echo to the
sense”.
 Primary onomatopoeia
cats mew, purr lions roar

eagles scream mice squeak
frogs croak Snakes hiss
hens cluck wolves howl
(For more examples, see page 60-61)
 Secondary onomatopoeia
 Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain sounds
and sound-sequences are associated with certain
senses. In other words, certain sounds evoke
symbolic connotations, suggesting particular senses.
 Secondary onomatopoeia
 -are suggests “big light or noise”
 Blare, flare, glare, stare
 -ump suggests “protuberance”
 Plump, chump, rump, hump, stump, dump, mump
 sk- suggests “touching or moving on the surface’
 Skate, skim, skin, ski, sketch, skid
 h- suggests “moving with great speed, force, or violence”
 Heavy, haste, hurry, hit, hurl, hammer, hinder
 But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic words
constitute only a small part of the vocabulary; some
onomatopoeic words are not completely motivated
phonetically and are conventional to quite a large
extent. If you throw a stone into water, the sound you
hear is by no means the same as when you say
splash. Flies do not exactly make the sound of buzz.
 We say the word is morphologically motivated, for a
direct connection can be observed between the
morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.
This is called morphological motivation( 形态理
据）
 Derivational words are morphologically motivated. If one
knows the meaning of the affix and the base, then one can
immediately tell the meaning of the word.
 Compounds words may be morphologically motivated too.
The meanings of words like good-looking, spaceman,
moonscape, daydream and many others derive from the
combined meaning of the component parts.
 One thing worth pointing out is that the morphemes, the
component parts of these words are themselves
conventional.
 Semantic motivation （语义理据） refers to the
mental association suggested by the conceptual
meaning of a word. It explains the connection
between the literal sense and figurative sense of the
word. Here it is the figurative usage that provides the
semantic motivation.
 Examples:
 When we speak of a stony heart we are comparing
the heart with a stone.
 when we say the leg of a table, we are comparing
the table’s leg with one of the lower limbs of a human
being.
 Types of semantic motivation
 Metaphor
 Metonymy
 Synecdoche
 Analogy
 Metaphor
 Metaphor （隐喻） is a figure of speech containing
an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase
ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied
to another. It is a simile without like or as.
 Metaphor
 The world is a stage.
 A sea of troubles; a tide of popular applause.
 The city is a jungle where no body is safe after the
dark.
 Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and
some few to be chewed and digested.
 ----- Bacon Of Studies
 Metonymy
 Metonymy （借代） is the device in which we
name something by one of its attributes. The
substitution of the name of one thing for that of
another with which it is closely associated.
 Metonymy
 Metonymy usually includes several classes:
container for its content, a thing closely associated
for another, tool for the doer or deed, writer for his
works, the concrete for the abstract and so on.
 Metonymy
 He is too fond of bottles.
 The hall applauded.
 I have never read Li Bai.
 The pen is mightier than the sword.
 He succeeded to the crown.
 Uncle Sam; the Pentagon; Hollywood; the White
House;Beijing
 Synecdoche
 Synecdoche （提喻） means using a part for a
whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing,
or vice versa, the whole for a part.
 Synecdoche
 There are about 500 hands working in this factory.
 This newspaper—and probably the country—will wait
its time and see how the new faces perform before
judging them.
 The birds sing to welcome the smiling year.
 To earn one’s bread
 He is a clever creature .
 Analogy
 Analogy （类比） is a process whereby words or
phrases are created in imitation of existing patterns
in the language. The motivation is that the meaning
or sense of the created word shares similarity with
the existing language pattern.
 Analogy
 Color: black list---white list, gray list; blue-color workers---
white-collar workers, gray-collar workers, pink-collar workers,
and gold-collar workers
 Number: the First World---the Second World, the Third world,
the Fourth World
 Place and space: landscape---moonscape, marscape;
sunrise---earthrise; spaceman---earthman, moonman
 Analogy
 Similarity: missile gap---generation gap,
development gap, income gap, credibility gap
 Antonym: hot line---cold line; baby boom---baby bust;
nightmare---daymare; cold-war---hot war; high-rise---
low-rise
 Logical motivation （逻辑理据） deals with the
problem of defining a concept by means of logic. It
means, first, identify the concept of a genus （种概
念） , second, to identify the attributes
distinguishing one species （属差） from other
similar species in the same genus.

 Compounds combining species and genus
 Crisis---economical crisis, financial crisis, spiritual
crisis, ecological crisis, credit crisis, military crisis,
identity crisis
 Relations---international relations, business relations,
diplomatic relations, bilateral relations

 Clipped compounds by shortening
species or genus
 drug from narcotic or hallucinogenic drug
 He is addicted to drugs
 pill from birth control pill
 The Hill from the Capitol Hill
 Nobel from Nobel Prize

 Relation
 Motivation is closely related to culture and history. In
English, some words are endowed with rich cultural
connotations. Words that epitomize cultural history
are call culturally-bound words or allusive words.
These words originated from religion, mythology,
history and literature.

 forbidden fruit: sth. alluring but prohibited because of
terrible consequences
 Odyssey: a long, adventurous journey
 the last straw: the last thing that leads one to a final
loss of patience, temper, trust, or hope
 Waterloo: a final, crushing defeat,eg. meet one's
Waterloo
 Uncle Tom: a person who compromises and
conforms

 Prometheus unbound:an overwhelming power
 Solomon: a wise man
 Sphinx: A puzzling or mysterious person or thing. Eg.
a Sphinx’s riddle: a puzzling, mysterious question,
problem.

 Judas: One who betrays another under the guise of
friendship. Judas kiss: a malicious intention under the
guise of intimacy and friendship
 pound of flesh: legal but unreasonable demand or claim
 white elephant: A rare, expensive possession that is a
financial burden to maintain, no longer wanted

 The naked truth was fully revealed through a newspaper.
 -----He told us about his adventures last night. It’s a pity
you were not there.
-----Arabian Nights only. Don’t believe him.
 Like an Apollo, he comes and arrests everyone’s
attention in the hall.
 No cross, no crown
 To quest for full citizenship is really an Odyssey for Afro-
Americans.

 A non-native learner should have
relevant background knowledge
about the target language’s history,
geography, customs, habits,
knowledge about the Bible and
Christianity.

 National psychology
 To take French leave
 Double Dutch; Dutch bargain; Dutch courage; Dutch
comfort; Dutch treat; to go Dutch; to talk Dutch; I’m a
Dutchman if ….

 Religious Philosophy
 As poor as a church-mouse
 As patient as Job
 As wise as Solomon

 力大如牛  as strong as a horse
 as dump as an oyster;as silent
as the grave; as close as wax
 守口如瓶
 spring up like a mushroom
 如雨后春笋  like a cat on hot bricks
 如热锅上的蚂蚁  It’s no use crying over spilt milk.
 覆水难收  As timid as a rabbit
 胆小如鼠

English Lexicology (II) : "Without Grammar Very Little Can Be Conveyed, Without Vocabulary Nothing Can Be Conveyed."

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English Lexicology

5.1 General Remarks

dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested

counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive,

inter- international, intergovernmental, intertwine,

tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication

fore- foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn

pre- premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital

post- post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral

be- belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch

en- endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower

Neo- Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism, neo-fascism, Neolithic

Pan- Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism

7.1 Conventionality and

cats mew, purr lions roar

(For more examples, see page 60-61)

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