Chapter 3

Transport Layer

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Transport Layer 3-1
Chapter 3: Transport Layer
Our goals:
 understand principles
behind transport
layer services:
 multiplexing/demultipl
exing
 reliable data transfer
 flow control
 congestion control
 learn about transport
layer protocols in the
Internet:
 UDP: connectionless
transport
 TCP: connection-oriented
transport
 TCP congestion control
Transport Layer 3-2
Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-3

Transport services and protocols
application
transport
 provide logical communication network
data link
between app processes physical

running on different hosts

lo
gi
ca
 transport protocols run in

le
nd
end systems

-e
nd
 send side: breaks app

tr
a
messages into segments,

ns
po
passes to network layer

rt
 rcv side: reassembles application
transport
segments into messages, network
data link
passes to app layer physical

 more than one transport

protocol available to apps
 Internet: TCP and UDP

Transport Layer 3-4

Transport vs. network layer
 network layer: logical
communication
between hosts
 transport layer: logical
communication
between processes
 relies on, enhances,
network layer services
Household analogy:
12 kids sending letters to
12 kids
 processes = kids
 app messages = letters
in envelopes
 hosts = houses
 transport protocol =
Ann and Bill
 network-layer protocol
= postal service
Transport Layer 3-5
Internet transport-layer protocols
 reliable, in-order application
transport
network
delivery (TCP) data link
physical
network
 congestion control data link

lo
network
physical

gi
data link
flow control

ca
 physical

le
connection setup

nd


-e
nd
 unreliable, unordered network

tr
data link

a
physicalnetwork
delivery: UDP

ns
data link

po
physical

rt
 no-frills extension of network
data link
application
“best-effort” IP physical network
data link
transport
network
 services not available: physical data link
physical

 delay guarantees
 bandwidth guarantees

Transport Layer 3-6

Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-7

 Multiplexing/demultiplexing
Demultiplexing at rcv host: Multiplexing at send host:
gathering data from multiple
delivering received segments
sockets, enveloping data with
to correct socket
header (later used for
demultiplexing)
= socket = process

P3 P1
P1 P2 P4 application
application application

transport transport transport

network network network

link link link

physical physical physical

host 2 host 3
host 1
Transport Layer 3-8
How demultiplexing works
 host receives IP datagrams
 each datagram has source IP
address, destination IP address 32 bits
 each datagram carries 1
source port # dest port #
transport-layer segment
 each segment has source,
destination port number other header fields
 host uses IP addresses & port
numbers to direct segment to
appropriate socket
application
data
(message)

TCP/UDP segment format

Transport Layer 3-9

Connectionless demultiplexing
 When host receives UDP
 Create sockets with port
segment:
numbers:
DatagramSocket mySocket1 = new
 checks destination port
DatagramSocket(12534); number in segment
DatagramSocket mySocket2 = new  directs UDP segment to
DatagramSocket(12535); socket with that port
 UDP socket identified by number
 IP datagrams with
two-tuple:
(dest IP address, dest port number) different source IP
addresses and/or source
port numbers directed
to same socket

Transport Layer 3-10

 Connectionless demux (cont)
DatagramSocket serverSocket = new DatagramSocket(6428);

P2 P1
P1
P3

SP: 6428 SP: 6428

DP: 9157 DP: 5775

SP: 9157 SP: 5775

client DP: 6428 DP: 6428 Client
server
IP: A IP: C IP:B

SP provides “return address”

Transport Layer 3-11

 Connection-oriented demux
 TCP socket identified  Server host may support
by 4-tuple: many simultaneous TCP
 source IP address sockets:
 source port number  each socket identified by
 dest IP address its own 4-tuple
 dest port number  Web servers have
 recv host uses all four different sockets for
values to direct each connecting client
segment to appropriate  non-persistent HTTP will
socket have different socket for
each request

Transport Layer 3-12

Connection-oriented demux
(cont)

P1 P4 P5 P6 P2 P1P3

SP: 5775
DP: 80
S-IP: B
D-IP:C

SP: 9157 SP: 9157

client DP: 80 DP: 80 Client
server
IP: A S-IP: A
IP: C S-IP: B IP:B
D-IP:C D-IP:C

Transport Layer 3-13

Connection-oriented demux:
Threaded Web Server

P1 P4 P2 P1P3

SP: 5775
DP: 80
S-IP: B
D-IP:C

SP: 9157 SP: 9157

client DP: 80 DP: 80 Client
server
IP: A S-IP: A
IP: C S-IP: B IP:B
D-IP:C D-IP:C

Transport Layer 3-14

Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-15

UDP: User Datagram Protocol [RFC 768]
 “no frills,” “bare bones”
Internet transport protocol Why is there a UDP?
 “best effort” service, UDP
 no connection
segments may be: establishment (which can
 lost
add delay)
 delivered out of order  simple: no connection state
to app at sender, receiver
 connectionless:  small segment header
 no handshaking between
 no congestion control: UDP
UDP sender, receiver can blast away as fast as
 each UDP segment
desired
handled independently
of others

Transport Layer 3-16

UDP: more
 often used for streaming
multimedia apps 32 bits
 loss tolerant
Length, in source port # dest port #
 rate sensitive bytes of UDP length checksum
segment,
 other UDP uses
including
 DNS header
 SNMP
 reliable transfer over UDP: Application
add reliability at data
application layer (message)
 application-specific
error recovery!
UDP segment format

Transport Layer 3-17

UDP checksum
Goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
segment

Sender: Receiver:
 treat segment contents  compute checksum of received
as sequence of 16-bit segment
integers  check if computed checksum
 checksum: addition (1’s equals checksum field value:
complement sum) of  NO - error detected

segment contents  YES - no error detected.

 sender puts checksum But maybe errors
value into UDP checksum nonetheless? More later ….
field

Transport Layer 3-18

 Internet Checksum Example
 Note
 When adding numbers, a carryout from the
most significant bit needs to be added to the
result
 Example: add two 16-bit integers

1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

wraparound 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
checksum 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
Transport Layer 3-19
Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-20

Reliable Data Transfer (RDT)

Send 3 Packets pkt0, pkt1, pkt2

Transport Layer 3-21
Reliable Data Transfer (RTD)

Send 3 Packets pkt0, pkt1, pkt2

Transport Layer 3-22
 RDT: stop-and-wait operation
sender receiver
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last packet bit transmitted, t = L / R

first packet bit arrives

RTT last packet bit arrives, send
ACK

ACK arrives, send next

packet, t = RTT + L / R

Utilization: U L/R .008

= = = 0.00027
sender 30.008
RTT + L / R microsec
onds

Transport Layer 3-23

Pipelined protocols
Pipelining: sender allows multiple, “in-flight”, yet-to-
be-acknowledged pkts
 range of sequence numbers must be increased
 buffering at sender and/or receiver

 Two generic forms of pipelined protocols: go-Back-N,

selective repeat
Transport Layer 3-24
 Pipelining: increased utilization
sender receiver
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last bit transmitted, t = L / R

first packet bit arrives

RTT last packet bit arrives, send ACK
last bit of 2nd packet arrives, send ACK
last bit of 3rd packet arrives, send ACK
ACK arrives, send next
packet, t = RTT + L / R

Increase utilization
by a factor of 3!

U 3*L/R .024
sender
= = = 0.0008
RTT + L / R 30.008 microsecon
ds
Transport Layer 3-25
Pipelining Protocols
Go-back-N: big picture:
 Sender can have up to
N unacked packets in
pipeline
 Rcvr only sends
cumulative acks
 Doesn’t ack packet if
there’s a gap
 Sender has timer for
oldest unacked packet
 If timer expires,
retransmit all unacked
packets
Selective Repeat: big pic
 Sender can have up to
N unacked packets in
pipeline
 Rcvr acks individual
packets
 Sender maintains
timer for each
unacked packet
 When timer expires,
retransmit only unack
packet
Transport Layer 3-26
Selective repeat: big picture
 Sender can have up to N unacked packets
in pipeline
 Rcvr acks individual packets
 Sender maintains timer for each unacked
packet
 When timer expires, retransmit only unack
packet

Transport Layer 3-27

Go-Back-N
Sender:
 k-bit seq # in pkt header
 “window” of up to N, consecutive unack’ed pkts allowed

 ACK(n): ACKs all pkts up to, including seq # n - “cumulative ACK”

 may receive duplicate ACKs (see receiver)
 timer for each in-flight pkt
 timeout(n): retransmit pkt n and all higher seq # pkts in window

Transport Layer 3-28

GBN in
action

Transport Layer 3-29

Selective Repeat
 receiver individually acknowledges all correctly
received pkts
 buffers pkts, as needed, for eventual in-order delivery
to upper layer
 sender only resends pkts for which ACK not
received
 sender timer for each unACKed pkt
 sender window
 N consecutive seq #’s
 again limits seq #s of sent, unACKed pkts

Transport Layer 3-30

Selective repeat: sender, receiver windows

Transport Layer 3-31

Selective repeat in action

Transport Layer 3-32

Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-33

 TCP: Overview RFCs: 793, 1122, 1323, 2018, 2581

 point-to-point:  full duplex data:

 one sender, one receiver  bi-directional data flow

 reliable, in-order byte in same connection

 MSS: maximum segment
steam:
size
 no “message boundaries”
 connection-oriented:
 pipelined:
 handshaking (exchange
 TCP congestion and flow
of control msgs) init’s
control set window size sender, receiver state
 send & receive buffers before data exchange
 flow controlled:
a p p lic a t io n a p p lic a t io n
socket
w r ite s d a ta re a d s d a ta
socket
 sender will not
door
overwhelm receiver
door
TC P TC P
s e n d b u ffe r r e c e iv e b u f f e r
segm ent

Transport Layer 3-34

 TCP segment structure
32 bits
URG: urgent data counting
(generally not used) source port # dest port #
by bytes
sequence number of data
ACK: ACK #
valid acknowledgement number (not segments!)
head not
PSH: push data now len used
UA P R S F Receive window
(generally not used) # bytes
checksum Urg data pnter
rcvr willing
RST, SYN, FIN: to accept
Options (variable length)
connection estab
(setup, teardown
commands)
application
Internet data
checksum (variable length)
(as in UDP)

Transport Layer 3-35

 TCP seq. #’s and ACKs
Seq. #’s:
Host A Host B
 byte stream “number”
of first byte in User Seq=4
2, ACK=
segment’s data types 79, da
t a = ‘C
‘C’ ’
ACKs: host ACKs
 seq # of next byte receipt of
= ‘C’ ‘C’, echoes
expected from other 43 , data
, ACK
= back ‘C’
side Seq =79
 cumulative ACK

Q: how receiver handles host ACKs

out-of-order segments receipt Seq=4
of echoed 3, ACK
=80
 A: TCP spec doesn’t
‘C’
say, - up to
implementor
time
simple telnet scenario

Transport Layer 3-36

Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-37

TCP reliable data transfer
 TCP creates rdt  Retransmissions are
service on top of IP’s triggered by:
unreliable service  timeout events
 Pipelined segments  duplicate acks
 Cumulative acks  Initially consider
 TCP uses single simplified TCP sender:
ignore duplicate acks
retransmission timer

 ignore flow control,
congestion control

Transport Layer 3-38

TCP sender events:
data rcvd from app: timeout:
 Create segment with  retransmit segment
seq # that caused timeout
 seq # is byte-stream  restart timer
number of first data Ack rcvd:
byte in segment  If acknowledges
 start timer if not
previously unacked
already running (think segments
of timer as for oldest  update what is known to
unacked segment) be acked
 expiration interval:  start timer if there are
TimeOutInterval outstanding segments

Transport Layer 3-39

 TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B Host A Host B

Seq=9 Seq=9
2, 8 b 2, 8 b y te
y te s d a s data
ta Seq=

Seq=92 timeout
1 00, 2
0 by t
es da
timeout

t a
=100
ACK 0
10
X CK=
A AC K = 120
loss
Seq=9 Seq=9
2, 8 b
2, 8 b
y t es da Sendbase y t es da
ta
ta
= 100

Seq=92 timeout
SendBase
= 120 = 120
0 K
=10 AC
ACK

SendBase
= 100 SendBase
= 120 premature timeout
time time
lost ACK scenario
Transport Layer 3-40
 TCP retransmission scenarios (more)
Host A Host B

Seq=9
2, 8 byte
s data

=100
timeout

Seq=1 A CK
00, 20
bytes
data
X
loss

SendBase C K =120
A
= 120

time
Cumulative ACK scenario

Transport Layer 3-41

Fast Retransmit
 Time-out period often
relatively long:
 long delay before
resending lost packet
 Detect lost segments
via duplicate ACKs.
 Sender often sends
many segments back-to-
back
 If segment is lost,
there will likely be many
duplicate ACKs.
 If sender receives 3
ACKs for the same
data, it supposes that
segment after ACKed
data was lost:
 fast retransmit: resend
segment before timer
expires
Transport Layer 3-42
 Host A Host B

X
timeout

resen
d 2 nd s
egme
nt

time

Figure 3.37 Resending a segment after triple duplicate ACK Layer

Transport 3-43
Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-44

TCP Flow Control
flow control
sender won’t overflow
 receive side of TCP
receiver’s buffer by
connection has a transmitting too
receive buffer: much,
too fast

 speed-matching
service: matching the
send rate to the
receiving app’s drain
rate
 app process may be
slow at reading from
buffer
Transport Layer 3-45
TCP Flow control: how it works
 Rcvr advertises spare
room by including value
of RcvWindow in
segments
 Sender limits unACKed
(Suppose TCP receiver data to RcvWindow
discards out-of-order  guarantees receive
segments) buffer doesn’t overflow
 spare room in buffer
= RcvWindow
= RcvBuffer-[LastByteRcvd -
LastByteRead]

Transport Layer 3-46

Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-47

TCP Connection Management
Recall: TCP sender, receiver
establish “connection” before
exchanging data segments
 initialize TCP variables:
 seq. #s
 buffers, flow control info
(e.g. RcvWindow)
 client: connection initiator
Socket clientSocket = new
Socket("hostname","port
number");
 server: contacted by client
Socket connectionSocket =
welcomeSocket.accept();
Three way handshake:
Step 1: client host sends TCP SYN
segment to server
 specifies initial seq #
 no data
Step 2: server host receives SYN,
replies with SYNACK segment
 server allocates buffers
 specifies server initial seq.
#
Step 3: client receives SYNACK,
replies with ACK segment,
which may contain data
Transport Layer 3-48
TCP Connection Management (cont.)

Closing a connection: client server

client closes socket: close

FIN
clientSocket.close();

Step 1: client end system

ACK
sends TCP FIN control close
segment to server FIN

Step 2: server receives FIN,

timed wait
ACK
replies with ACK. Closes
connection, sends FIN.

closed

Transport Layer 3-49

TCP Connection Management (cont.)

Step 3: client receives FIN, client server

replies with ACK.
closing
FIN
 Enters “timed wait” - will
respond with ACK to
received FINs
ACK
closing
Step 4: server, receives ACK. FIN
Connection closed.

Note: with small modification,

timed wait
ACK
can handle simultaneous FINs.
closed

closed

Transport Layer 3-50

Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-51

Principles of Congestion Control

Congestion:
 informally: “too many sources sending too much
data too fast for network to handle”
 different from flow control!
 manifestations:
 lost packets (buffer overflow at routers)
 long delays (queueing in router buffers)
 a top-10 problem!

Transport Layer 3-52

 Causes/costs of congestion
 one router, finite buffers
 sender retransmission of lost packet

Host A in : original data out

'in : original data, plus

retransmitted data

Host B finite shared output

link buffers

Transport Layer 3-53

Approaches towards congestion control
Two broad approaches towards congestion control:

End-end congestion Network-assisted

control: congestion control:
 no explicit feedback from  routers provide feedback
network to end systems
 congestion inferred from  single bit indicating
end-system observed loss, congestion (SNA,
delay DECbit, TCP/IP ECN,
 approach taken by TCP ATM)
 explicit rate sender
should send at

Transport Layer 3-54

Chapter 3 outline
 3.1 Transport-layer  3.5 Connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
 3.2 Multiplexing and  segment structure
demultiplexing  reliable data transfer
 3.3 Connectionless  flow control
connection management
transport: UDP


 3.6 Principles of
 3.4 Principles of
reliable data transfer congestion control
 3.7 TCP congestion
control

Transport Layer 3-55

 TCP congestion control: additive increase,
multiplicative decrease
 Approach: increase transmission rate (window size),
probing for usable bandwidth, until loss occurs
 additive increase: increase CongWin by 1 MSS
every RTT until loss detected
 multiplicative decrease: cut CongWin in half after
loss c o n g e s tio n
w in d o w
congestion window size

2 4 K b y te s

Saw tooth
behavior: probing
1 6 K b y te s

for bandwidth
8 K b y te s

time
tim e

Transport Layer 3-56

TCP Congestion Control: details
How does sender perceive congestion?
 loss event = timeout or 3 duplicate acks
 TCP sender reduces rate (CongWin) after loss
event
three mechanisms:
 AIMD
 slow start
 conservative after timeout events

Transport Layer 3-57

 TCP Slow Start
 When connection begins, CongWin = 1 MSS
 When connection begins, increase rate exponentially
fast until first loss event

Transport Layer 3-58

TCP Slow Start (more)
 When connection Host A Host B
begins, increase rate
exponentially until
one segm
ent

RTT
first loss event:
two segm
 double CongWin every ents
RTT
 done by incrementing
CongWin for every ACK four segm
ents
received
 Summary: initial rate
is slow but ramps up
exponentially fast time

Transport Layer 3-59

 Refinement: inferring loss
 After 3 dup ACKs:
 CongWin is cut in half
 window then grows linearly Philosophy:
 But after timeout event:
 CongWin instead set to 1 MSS;  3 dup ACKs indicates
 window then grows exponentially
network capable of
 to a threshold, then grows linearly
delivering some segments
 timeout indicates a
“more alarming”
congestion scenario

Transport Layer 3-60

Refinement
Q: When should the
exponential increase
switch to linear?
A: When CongWin gets
to 1/2 of its value
before timeout.

Implementation:
 Variable Threshold
 At loss event, Threshold is
set to 1/2 of CongWin just
before loss event

Transport Layer 3-61

Summary: TCP Congestion Control
 When CongWin is below Threshold, sender in
slow-start phase, window grows exponentially.
 When CongWin is above Threshold, sender is in
congestion-avoidance phase, window grows linearly.
 When a triple duplicate ACK occurs, Threshold
set to CongWin/2 and CongWin set to
Threshold.
 When timeout occurs, Threshold set to
CongWin/2 and CongWin is set to 1 MSS.

Transport Layer 3-62

TCP sender congestion control
State Event TCP Sender Action Commentary
Slow Start ACK receipt CongWin = CongWin + MSS, Resulting in a doubling of
(SS) for previously If (CongWin > Threshold) CongWin every RTT
unacked set state to “Congestion
data Avoidance”
Congestion ACK receipt CongWin = CongWin+MSS * Additive increase, resulting
Avoidance for previously (MSS/CongWin) in increase of CongWin by
(CA) unacked 1 MSS every RTT
data
SS or CA Loss event Threshold = CongWin/2, Fast recovery,
detected by CongWin = Threshold, implementing multiplicative
triple Set state to “Congestion decrease. CongWin will not
duplicate Avoidance” drop below 1 MSS.
ACK
SS or CA Timeout Threshold = CongWin/2, Enter slow start
CongWin = 1 MSS,
Set state to “Slow Start”
SS or CA Duplicate Increment duplicate ACK count CongWin and Threshold
ACK for segment being acked not changed

Transport Layer 3-63

TCP Fairness
Fairness goal: if K TCP sessions share same
bottleneck link of bandwidth R, each should have
average rate of R/K

TCP connection 1

bottleneck
TCP
router
connection 2
capacity R

Transport Layer 3-64

Why is TCP fair?
Two competing sessions:
 Additive increase gives slope of 1, as throughout increases
 multiplicative decrease decreases throughput proportionally

R equal bandwidth share

Connection 2 throughput

loss: decrease window by factor of 2

congestion avoidance: additive increase
loss: decrease window by factor of 2
congestion avoidance: additive increase

Connection 1 throughput R

Transport Layer 3-65

Chapter 3: Summary
 principles behind transport
layer services:
 multiplexing, demultiplexing
 reliable data transfer
 flow control
 congestion control
 instantiation and Next:
implementation in the Internet  leaving the network
 UDP “edge” (application,
 TCP transport layers)
 into the network
“core”

Transport Layer 3-66