Sedimentary Rocks

From sediments to rocks

Dr Marcus Matthews
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks and the rock cycle
Sedimentary Environments
Facies
Diagenesis
Classification of Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary Rocks and the
Rock Cycle
Sedimentary rocks are the product of several
overlapping processes
Weathering – parent rocks decomposed and or
fragmented
Erosion – carries particles away
Transportation – moves particles to new locations
Deposition – particles settle, minerals are
precipitated
Burial – layers of sediment accumulate
Diagenesis – physical & chemical changes that
transform a sediment into a rock
Weathering and Erosion Yield
the Raw Materials
Particles and dissolved substances

Clastic sediments Chemical deposits

Cementing materials
Weathering and Erosion Yield
the Raw Materials
Clastic sediments
Transported solid fragments
Boulders to clay
Often called siliclastic
Stable minerals e.g. quartz found unaltered
Less stable minerals e.g. feldspar often absent or partially
altered
New minerals e.g. clay minerals
Mineralogy of sediment reflects intensity of weathering as well
as length and type of transport
Clastic sediments generally accumulate more rapidly than other
types of sediments
Weathering and Erosion Yield
the Raw Materials
Chemical and Biochemical Sediments

Dissolved products of weathering

Chemical sediments are formed at or near place of deposition
(e.g. rock salt, limestone)
Biochemical sediments contain un-dissolved remains of
organisms (e.g. chalk)
In practice many chemical and biochemical sediments overlap
Transportation and Deposition
Most particles are transported by currents of water or air (wind).
Rivers annually carry a solid and dissolved sediment load of more
than 20 billion tonnes. Currents in air move material globally but in
much smaller quantities
Transportation and Deposition
Currents sort sediments into different size groups

Clastic rocks
Chemical & biochemical rocks
L.S. Fichter (1993, 2000)
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/sedrx/simpbasclas.html
 Transportation and Deposition
Transportation changes the character of the particles.
The key factors are time, distance and mode of transport.

Transportation results in reduced particle angularity and size

Transportation and Deposition
Transportation changes the character of the particles.
The key factors are time, distance and mode of transport.

Example: Clastic particles eroded at the headwaters of

the Missouri River in the mountains of western Montana
take hundreds of years to travel the 2000 miles to the
Gulf of Mexico. These particles may be affected by
physical weathering (rounding) as well as intermittent
chemical weathering.
Transport by glaciers does not result in rounding of
particles. The particles are reduced in size.
Transport by wind rounds and polishes particles.
Sedimentary Environments
A sedimentary environment is a geographic location
characterised by a particular combination of geological
processes.
Type and amount of water (ocean, lake, river, arid
land)
Topography (lowland, mountains, coastal plain,
shallow ocean, deep ocean)
Biological activity (coral reefs, swamps)
 Sedimentary Environments

Shoreline Environments
Deltaic
Continental Environments Tidal flat
Alluvial Beach
Desert Marine Environments
Lake Continental shelf
Glacial Continental slope
Organic reefs
Deep-sea
Facies
Facies are combinations of sediments or
sedimentary rocks characteristic of a particular
sedimentary environment.

Examples: Alluvial facies and deltaic facies

Sedimentary Facies:
Alluvial
The sediments deposited by a meandering river form a sequence
where each bed forms in a different part of the channel. As the
channel migrates they are deposited in sequence on top of each
other. The sequence is cyclic with each cycle ending in over-bank
flooding.

Fining upward
sequence
Sedimentary Facies: Deltaic
The river delta is a complex environment
Active delta lobe as it involves the combination of river,
tides and wave action. Channel switching
by river causes delta lobes to be
periodically abandoned resulting in a cyclic
sequence of sediments.

One Coarsening
Abandoned delta lobe delta upwards
cycle sequence

Coal (abandonment)
One
Prograding delta
delta lobe cycle
Marine shale
Diagenesis
Physical and chemical changes that
transform a sediment into a rock

Mud (clay) Mudstone & shale

Sand Sandstone

Gravel Conglomerate/breccia

Carbonate Limestone & marl

rich muds
Diagenetic Processes:
Compaction
Compaction (primarily of muds)

Pressure due to overburden

(burial) squeezes water out
of pore space.
50-60% water
10-20% water
Particles forced closer
together as pore volume
reduces
Note
Geologists say compaction
Geotechnical Engineers say consolidation
To a Geotechnical Engineer compaction means removal of air through
application of energy
Diagenetic Processes:
Cementation
Precipitation of new minerals

Loose sand Common cements Cemented sandstone

Iron oxide
Calcium Carbonate
Clay minerals
Silica
Diagenetic Processes: Re-
Crystallisation
New crystal faces precipitated on existing mineral grains

Loose sand Cemented sandstone

= same mineral

Example: development of a strong quartzite through

precipitation of silica on original quartz grains
Diagenetic Processes:
Dissolution
 Classification of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Grains visible Grains visible with Grains not visible with aid of
with naked eye naked eye (course), x10 hand lens
Breccia with aid of x10 hand Mudrocks
lens (fine)
(angular fragments)
Sandstone Siltstone Claystone
Conglomerate
(rounded fragments) Shale

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Medium

Medium
Course

Course
Fine

Fine
0.6
6

0.2
20

60mm 2mm 0.06mm 0.002mm

Cobbles 60-200mmm, Boulders >200mm
Classification of Clastic
Sedimentary Rocks
Major types of sandstone based on mineral/rock
content
Quartzite Arkose Lithic Sandstone Greywacke
Classification of Sedimentary
Rocks
Classification of chemical and biochemical sedimentary
rocks
Biochemical

Sediment Rock Composition Minerals

Sand & mud Limestone CaCO3 Calcite

Siliceous sediment Chert SiO2 Opal,

Chalcedony
Quartz

Peat, organic matter Lignite, Coal Carbon (Coal)

Organics compounds (Oil)
(Gas)
 Classification of Sedimentary
Rocks
Classification of chemical and biochemical sedimentary
rocks
Chemical
Sediment Rock Composition Minerals

Evaporite Evaporite Sodium chloride Halite

Calcium sulphate Anhydrite
Gypsum

Iron oxide sediments Iron formation Iron oxide Hematite

Limonite
Iron carbonate Siderite

Formed by diagenesis Dolomite Calcium-magnesium Dolomite

(Dolostone) carbonate
o
Phosphorite Calcium phosphate Apatite
 Classification of Sedimentary
Rocks
Classification of chemical and biochemical sedimentary
rocks
Biochemical
Sediment Rock Composition Minerals

Sand & mud Limestone CaCO3 Calcite

Siliceous sediment Chert SiO2 Opal,

Chalcedony
Quartz

Peat, organic matter Lignite, Coal Carbon (Coal)

Organics compounds (Oil)
(Gas)
o
 Classification of Sedimentary
Rocks
Classification of chemical and biochemical sedimentary
rocks
Chemical
Sediment Rock Composition Minerals

Evaporite Evaporite Sodium chloride Halite

Calcium sulphate Anhydrite
Gypsum

Iron oxide sediments Iron formation Iron oxide Hematite

Limonite
Iron carbonate Siderite

Formed by diagenesis Dolomite Calcium-magnesium Dolomite

(Dolostone) carbonate
o
Phosphorite Calcium phosphate Apatite