Introduction about light

 The human eye is capable of seeing only light

with wavelengths between 380 and 750
nanometers.
Electromagnetic Radiation
Unit – I Laser Physics
Introduction
 The first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore
H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories,
based on theoretical work by Charles Hard
Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow.

 A laser is a device that emits light through a

process of optical amplification based on the
stimulated emission of electromagnetic
radiation.
Induced absorption (stimulated absorption)
 The process in which an atom sized system in lower
energy state is raised in to higher energy state by
electro magnetic radiation which is quanta of energy is
equal to the difference of energy of the two states is
called stimulated absorption.
 hν=E -E
2 1
Spontaneous emission
 If an electron is in the excited state with the energy E2 it may
spontaneously decay to the ground state, with energy E1, releasing
the difference in energy between the two states as a photon.
 fluorescent light

 The phase and direction of the photon in spontaneous emission are

completely random due to Uncertainty Principle
Principles of laser
 The principle of a laser is based on three separate
features:

 a) stimulated emission within an amplifying medium,

 b) population inversion of electronics and
 c) an optical resonator.
Stimulated emission
 if the excited-state atom is perturbed by the electric
field of a photon with frequency, it may release a
second photon of the same frequency, in phase with the
first photon. The atom will again decay into the ground
state. This process is known as stimulated emission
 The emitted photon is identical to the stimulating photon
with the same frequency, polarization, and direction
of propagation. And there is a fixed phase relationship
between light radiated from different atoms.
 The photons, as a result, are totally coherent.
 This is the critical property that allows optical
amplification to take place.
 All the three processes occur simultaneously within a
medium.
Population inversion
 population inversion occurs when a system
(such as a group of atoms or molecules)
exists in a state with more members in an
excited state than in lower energy states.
 The concept is of fundamental importance in

laser science because the production of a

population inversion is a necessary step in
the workings of a standard laser.
Population inversion
METASTABLE STATE
 Metastable states are excited states. Which have a
relatively long lifetime due to slow radiative and non-
radiative decay.
 Population inversion occurs only in between the
metastable state and lower state.
Meta Stable State

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/j
ava/lasers/stimulatedemission/index.h
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Conditions For Laser Actions
 (i) The system must be in a state of population
inversion.
 (ii) The excited state of the system should be in
metastable state.
 (iii) The atom should be in lower energy state.
Characteristics of LASER
 Laser radiation has the following important characteristics
over ordinary light source.
 They are:
◦ i) Monochromaticity,
◦ ii) Directionality,
◦ iii) Coherence and
◦ iv) Brightness. Ultraviolet radiation for lasers consists of
wavelengths between 180 and 400 nm.
The visible region consists of radiation with
wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm.
Types of LASER
 Lasers are classified into 4 types based on the type of
laser medium used:
◦ Solid state laser – Ruby and (neodymium) Nd:YAG (yttrium
aluminum garnet) lasers

◦ Gas laser - He-Ne, CO2

◦ Liquid laser – Dye laser
◦ Semiconductor laser – Laser diode
Solid-state laser
 A solid-state laser is a laser that uses solid as a laser medium.
In these lasers, glass or crystalline materials are used.
 Materials such as sapphire (Al2O3), neodymium-doped
yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG), Neodymium-doped
glass (Nd:glass) and ytterbium-doped glass are used as host
materials for laser medium.
 Out of these, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet
(Nd:YAG) is most commonly used.
 The first solid-state laser was a ruby laser. It is still
used in some applications.
 In this laser, a ruby crystal is used as a laser medium.
 In solid-state lasers, light energy is used as pumping
source. Light sources such as flashtube, flash lamps,
arc lamps, or laser diodes are used to achieve pumping.
 Semiconductor lasers do not belong to this category
because these lasers are usually electrically pumped
and involve different physical processes.
Ruby Laser

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kz
I3vaIb0aI
Nd:YAG laser
 Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Nd:
YAG) laser is a solid state laser in which Nd: YAG is
used as a laser medium.
 These lasers have many different applications in the
medical and scientific field for processes such as Lasik
surgery and laser spectroscopy.
Cont….

 Nd: YAG laser is a four-level laser system, which means that

the four energy levels are involved in laser action. These lasers
operate in both pulsed and continuous mode.
 Nd: YAG laser generates laser light commonly in the near-
infrared region of the spectrum at 1064 nanometers (nm). It
also emits laser light at several different wavelengths including
1440 nm, 1320 nm, 1120 nm, and 940 nm.
Nd: YAG laser construction
 It consists of three important elements: an energy
source, active medium, and optical resonator.
Energy source
 The energy source or pump source supplies energy to
the active medium to achieve population inversion. In
Nd: YAG laser, light energy sources such as flashtube
or laser diodes are used as energy source to supply
energy to the active medium.

 In the past, flashtubes are mostly used as pump source

because of its low cost. However, nowadays, laser
diodes are preferred over flashtubes because of its high
efficiency and low cost.
Active medium
The active medium or laser medium of the Nd:YAG laser
is made up of a synthetic crystalline material (Yttrium
Aluminum Garnet (YAG)) doped with a chemical
element (neodymium (Nd)). The lower energy state
electrons of the neodymium ions are excited to the higher
energy state to provide lasing action in the active
medium.
Optical resonator
 The Nd:YAG crystal is placed between two mirrors. These
two mirrors are optically coated or silvered.
 Each mirror is silvered or coated differently. One mirror is

fully silvered whereas, another mirror is partially silvered.

The mirror, which is fully silvered, will completely reflect
the light and is known as fully reflecting mirror.

 On the other hand, the mirror which is partially silvered

will reflect most part of the light but allows a small portion
of light through it to produce the laser beam. This mirror is
known as a partially reflecting mirror.
Working of Nd:YAG laser
 Nd: YAG laser is a four-level laser system, which
means that the four energy levels are involved in laser
action. The light energy sources such as flashtubes or
laser diodes are used to supply energy to the active
medium.
 In Nd:YAG laser, the lower energy state electrons in

the neodymium ions are excited to the higher energy

state to achieve population inversion.
Advantages of Nd:YAG laser
 Low power consumption
 Nd:YAG laser offers high gain.
 Nd:YAG laser has good thermal properties.
 Nd:YAG laser has good mechanical properties.
 The efficiency of Nd:YAG laser is very high as
compared to the ruby laser.
Applications of Nd:YAG laser
Military
 Nd:YAG lasers are used in laser designators and laser
rangefinders. A laser designator is a laser light source,
which is used to target objects for attacking. A laser
rangefinder is a rangefinder, which uses a laser light to
determine the distance to an object.
Medicine
 Nd: YAG lasers are used to correct posterior capsular
opacification (a condition that may occur after a
cataract surgery).
 Nd:YAG lasers are used to remove skin cancers.
Manufacturing
 Nd:YAG lasers are used for etching or marking a
variety of plastics and metals.
 Nd:YAG lasers are used for cutting and welding steel.
GAS LASER
 A gas laser is a laser in which an electric current is discharged
through a gas inside the laser medium to produce laser light. In
gas lasers, the laser medium is in the gaseous state.
 Gas lasers are used in applications that require laser light with
very high beam quality and long coherence lengths.
 A gas laser is the first laser that works on the principle of
converting electrical energy into light energy.
 It was the first molecular gas laser developed by Indian born
American scientist Prof.C.K.N.Pillai.
 It is a four level laser and it operates at 10.6 μm in the far IR
region. It is a very efficient laser.
 In a molecular gas laser, laser action is achieved by
transitions between vibrational and rotational levels of
molecules. Its construction is simple and the output of
this laser is continuous.
 In CO2 molecular gas laser, transition takes place

between the vibrational states of Carbon dioxide

molecules.
 Gas lasers are of different types: they are,
◦ Helium (He) – Neon (Ne) lasers, argon ion lasers,

◦ carbon dioxide lasers (CO2 lasers),

◦ carbon monoxide lasers (CO lasers),
◦ excimer lasers,
◦ nitrogen lasers,
◦ hydrogen lasers, etc.
The type of gas used to construct the laser medium can determine the
lasers wavelength or efficiency.
Principle:
 The active medium is a gas mixture of CO2, N2 and He. The
laser transition takes place between the vibrational states of
CO2molecules.
Construction:
 It consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the
diameter. This discharge tube is filled with gaseous mixture of
CO2(active medium), helium and nitrogen with suitable
partial pressures.
 The terminals of the discharge tubes are connected to a D.C
power supply. The ends of the discharge tube are fitted with
NaCl Brewster windows so that the laser light generated will
be polarized.
 Two concave mirrors one fully reflecting and the other
partially form an optical resonator.
CO2 laser
The functioning of CO2 Laser
 The nitrogen molecules which exist in the gas mixture gain
energy after stimulating through an electric current. In other
words, you can say that the nitrogen molecules get excited.
 Thus, we use nitrogen in this process as it can hold this state
of excitement for a longer time. Moreover, during this state,
nitrogen does not discharge the energy in form of light or
photons.
 Furthermore, nitrogen produces high-energy vibrations which
thus excite the carbon dioxide molecules.
 A state called the population inversion is achieved by the laser
at this stage. This stage is one where the system consists of
more excited particles than non-excited ones.
 Therefore, the atoms of nitrogen have to lose their state of
excitement through the release of energy in the form of
photons so that they can produce a beam of light.
 This happens when the atoms of nitrogen which are in the
state of excitement get in touch with the extremely cold atoms
of helium, causing the nitrogen to produce light.
Characteristics:
 Type: It is a molecular gas laser.
 Active medium: A mixture of CO2 , N2 and helium or

water vapour is used as active medium

 Pumping method: Electrical discharge method is used for

Pumping action
 Optical resonator: Two concave mirrors form a resonant

cavity
 Power output: The power output from this laser is about

10kW.
 Nature of output: The nature of output may be continuous

wave or pulsed wave.

 Wavelength of output: The wavelength of output is 0.6μm

and 10.6μm.
Advantages:
 The construction of CO2 laser is simple
 The output of this laser is continuous.
 It has high efficiency
 It has very high output power.
 The output power can be increased by extending the
length of the gas tube.
Disadvantages:
 The contamination of oxygen by carbon monoxide will
have some effect on laser action
 The operating temperature plays an important role in
determining the output power of laser
 The corrosion may occur at the reflecting plates
 Accidental exposure may damage our eyes, since it is
invisible (infra red region) to our eyes.
Applications:
 High power CO2 laser finds applications in material
processing, welding, drilling, cutting soldering etc.
 The low atmospheric attenuation (10.6μm makes

CO2 laser suitable for open air communication.

 It is used for remote sensing
 It is used for treatment of liver and lung diseases. 
 It is mostly used in neuro surgery and general surgery.
 It is used to perform microsurgery and bloodless

operations.
 Helium-Neon laser
 Helium-Neon laser is a type of gas laser in which a mixture of helium and neon
gas is used as a gain medium. Helium-Neon laser is also known as He-Ne laser.
 The helium-neon laser was the first continuous wave (CW) laser ever
constructed. It was built in 1961 by Ali Javan, Bennett, and Herriott at Bell
Telephone Laboratories.
 Helium-neon lasers are the most widely used gas lasers. These lasers have
many industrial and scientific uses and are often used in laboratory
demonstrations of optics.
 In He-Ne lasers, the optical pumping method is not used instead an electrical
pumping method is used. The excitation of electrons in the He-Ne gas active
medium is achieved by passing an electric current through the gas.
 The helium-neon laser operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nanometers (nm), in
the red portion of the visible spectrum.
Helium-neon laser construction
The helium-neon laser consists of three essential
components:
 Pump source (high voltage power supply)
 Gain medium (laser glass tube or discharge glass tube)
 Resonating cavity
He – Ne Laser
Pump source
 In order to achieve population inversion, we need to supply
energy to the gain medium or active medium. Different types
of energy sources are used to supply energy to the gain
medium.
 In ruby lasers and Nd:YAG lasers, the light energy sources
such as flashtubes or laser diodes are used as the pump source.
However, in helium-neon lasers, light energy is not used as the
pump source.
 In helium-neon lasers, a high voltage DC power supply is used
as the pump source. A high voltage DC supplies electric
current through the gas mixture of helium and neon.
 Gain medium
 The gain medium of a helium-neon laser is made up of the mixture
of helium and neon gas contained in a glass tube at low pressure.
The partial pressure of helium is 1 mbar whereas that of neon is
0.1 mbar.
 The gas mixture is mostly comprised of helium gas. Therefore, in
order to achieve population inversion, we need to excite primarily
the lower energy state electrons of the helium atoms. 
 In He-Ne laser, neon atoms are the active centers and have energy
levels suitable for laser transitions while helium atoms help in
exciting neon atoms.
 Electrodes (anode and cathode) are provided in the glass tube to
send the electric current through the gas mixture. These electrodes
are connected to a DC power supply.
Resonating cavity
 The glass tube (containing a mixture of helium and neon gas)
is placed between two parallel mirrors. These two mirrors are
silvered or optically coated.
 Each mirror is silvered differently. The left side mirror is
partially silvered and is known as output coupler whereas the
right side mirror is fully silvered and is known as the high
reflector or fully reflecting mirror.
 The fully silvered mirror will completely reflect the light
whereas the partially silvered mirror will reflect most part of
the light but allows some part of the light to produce the laser
beam.
Working of helium-neon laser
 In order to achieve population inversion, we need to supply 
energy to the gain medium. In helium-neon lasers, we use
high voltage DC as the pump source. A high voltage DC
produces energetic electrons that travel through the gas
mixture.
 The gas mixture in helium-neon laser is mostly comprised

of helium atoms. Therefore, helium atoms observe most of

the energy supplied by the high voltage DC.
 When the power is switched on, a high voltage of about 10

kV is applied across the gas mixture. This power is enough

to excite the electrons in the gas mixture.
 The electrons produced in the process of discharge are
accelerated between the electrodes (cathode and anode)
through the gas mixture.
 In the process of flowing through the gas, the energetic

electrons transfer some of their energy to the helium

atoms in the gas. As a result, the lower energy state
electrons of the helium atoms gain enough energy and
jumps into the excited states or metastable states.
 The light or photons emitted due to stimulated emission

will escape through the partially reflecting mirror or

output coupler to produce laser light.
 Advantages
  Helium-neon laser emits laser light in the visible
portion of the spectrum.
 High stability
 Low cost
 Operates without damage at higher temperatures

Disadvantages
 Low efficiency
 Low gain
 Helium-neon lasers are limited to low power tasks
Applications of helium-neon lasers

 Helium-neon lasers are used in industries.

 Helium-neon lasers are used in scientific instruments.

 Helium-neon lasers are used in the college laboratories.

Liquid Laser
 A liquid laser is a laser that uses the liquid as laser medium. In
liquid lasers, light supplies energy to the laser medium.
 A dye laser is an example of the liquid laser. A dye laser is a
laser that uses an organic dye (liquid solution) as the laser
medium.
 A dye laser is made up of an organic dye mixed with a solvent.
These lasers generate laser light from the excited energy states
of organic dyes dissolved in liquid solvents.
 It produces laser light beam in the near ultraviolet (UV) to the
near infrared (IR) region of the spectrum.
Semiconductor lasers
 Semiconductor lasers play an important role in our everyday
life. These lasers are very cheap, compact size and consume
low power. Semiconductor lasers are also known as laser
diodes.
 Semiconductor lasers are different from solid-state lasers. In
solid-state lasers, light energy is used as the pump source
whereas, in semiconductor lasers, electrical energy is used as
the pump source.
 In semiconductor lasers, a p-n junction of a 
semiconductor diode forms the active medium or laser
medium. The optical gain is produced within the
semiconductor material.
Applications of lasers
Medical applications
 The highly collimated beam of a laser may be further focused

to a microscopic dot of extremely high energy density. This

concept makes it useful for cutting and cauterizing instrument.
Welding and Cutting
 The highly collimated beam of a laser may be further focused

to a microscopic dot of extremely high energy density for

welding and cutting.
 For instance, the automobile industry makes extensive use of

carbon dioxide lasers with powers up to several kilowatts for

computer controlled welding on auto assembly lines.
Surveying
 Helium-neon and semiconductor lasers have become standard

parts of the field surveyor's equipment. A fast laser pulse is

sent to a corner reflector at the point to be measured and the
time of reflection is measured to get the distance.
Garment industry
 Computer controlled laser garment cutters can be programmed

to cut out 400 size 6 and then 700 size 9 garments. The
usefulness of the laser for such cutting operations comes from
the fact that the beam is highly collimated and can be further
focused to a microscopic dot of extremely high energy density
for cutting.
Laser nuclear fusion
 Telephone fiber drivers may be solid state lasers the size of a

grain of sand and consume a power of only half a milliwatt.

They can sent 50 million pulses per second into an attached
telephone fiber and encode over 600 simultaneous telephone
conversations.
Communication
 Digital data transmission plays a pivotal role in modern

society. Optical communication is any form of

telecommunication that uses light as the transmission
medium. An optical communication system consists of a
transmitter, which encodes a message into an optical signal,
a channel, which carries the signal to its destination, and a
receiver, which reproduces the message from the received
optical signal.
Laser printing
 The laser printer has in a few years become the

dominant mode of printing in offices. It employs a

semiconductor laser and the xerography principle. The
laser is focused and scanned across a photoactive
selenium coated drum where it produces a charge
pattern which mirrors the material to be printed.
CDs and optical discs
 Analog sound data is digitized by sampling at 44.1 kHz

and coding as binary numbers in the pits on the

compact disc. As the focused laser beam sweeps over
the pits, it reproduces the binary numbers in the
detection circuitry.
Spectroscopy
 Laser spectroscopy has led to advances in the precision with

which spectral line frequencies can be measured, and this has

fundamental significance for our understanding of basic
atomic processes.
Heat treatment
 Heat treatments for hardening or annealing have been long

practiced in metallurgy. But lasers offer some new possibilities

for selective heat treatments of metal parts.
Laser cooling
 Starting in about 1985 with the work of Steven Chu and

others, the use of lasers to achieve extremely low temperatures

has advanced to the point that temperatures of 10-9 K have
been reached.
Barcode scanners
 Supermarket scanners typically use helium-neon lasers

to scan the universal barcodes to identify products. The

laser beam bounces off a rotating mirror and scans the
code, sending a modulated beam to a light detector and
then to a computer which has the product information
stored. Semiconductor lasers can also be used for this
purpose.
Thank you