 Cytology, the study of the structure and

function of cells
 The human body contains both somatic and
sex cells

• Histology is the science that

studies the microscopic structure of
normal tissues.
 The cell theory states:
 Cells are the building blocks of all plants
and animals
 Cells are produced by the division of
preexisting cells
 Cells are the smallest units that perform all
vital physiological functions
 Each cell maintains homeostasis at the
cellular level
 Homeostasis at higher levels reflects combined,
coordinated action of many cells
The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body

Figure 3.1
 General Subdivisions of a Cell
A. Nucleus B. Cell
(regulatory Membrane
center of the
cell) (selectively
permeable
boundary
between
C. Cytoplasm
the cell and
(everything the
between the environ-
cell membrane ment)
and the
nuclear Organelles are individual
compartment) compartments in the cytoplasm
 Cell Membrane
 Cell membrane components
 phospholipid bilayer
 transmembrane (integral) and peripheral proteins
 interior protein network – elements of the cytoskeleton
 cell surface markers – glycocalyx (proteoglycans,
glycolipids, glycoproteins)
Fluid-mosaic model of membrane
structure
 Plasma or Cell Membrane
OUTSIDE
LIPID BILAYER

INSIDE
 Fluid Mosaic Model
of Membrane Structure

Membrane Proteins
Outer
Surface

Cholesterol Cytoplasm
Functions of the cell membrane

 Selectively
isolates the cell’s contents
from the external environment and
serves as a barrier

 Regulate the exchange of substances

between the inside and outside of the
cell – transport function

 Receptor function
The phospholipid bilayer is the fluid
portion of the membrane

 Double layer
 Polar head group: hydrophilic exterior
 Non-polar hydrocarbon tails: hydrophobic interior
 Cholesterol molecules are part of
the lipid bilayer

 Adds strength
 Adds flexibility
 Affects fluidity
 Membrane proteins:
Classified by position: Classified by function:

• Anchoring proteins
 Integral proteins
• Recognition proteins
 Peripheral proteins
• Receptor proteins
• Carrier proteins
• Channels
Membrane proteins
Integral and peripheral proteins
 Types of membrane proteins –
functional classification
 Transport proteins
 For passage of materials through the
plasma membrane
 Channel vs. carrier proteins

 Receptor proteins
 Bind molecules and trigger cellular
responses
 Example: hormones

 Recognition proteins
 Self vs. non-self (glycoprotein-based)
recognition
 Markers during development
2. Movement of substances across
membranes
 Definitions
 Concentration
 Number of molecules in a given volume
 Gradient
 Differences in concentration between two regions of
space.
 This causes molecules to move from one region to the
other (if no barrier to movement)
 Diffusion
 Netmovement of molecules from regions of high
concentration to regions of low concentration
 Considered as movement “down” its concentration gradient
 Diffusion of Dye in Water
Random
Dispersing Dispersal

Time 0 Time 1 Time 2

Steep Reduced No
Concentration Concentration Concentration
Gradient Gradient Gradient
 Passive and active transport
 Passive transport
 Movement of molecules down their
concentration gradients
 Requires no net energy expenditure
 The gradients themselves provide energy
 Active transport
 Movement of molecules against their
concentration gradients
 Requires energy!
 Passive transport
1. Simple diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
3. Osmosis
4. Filtration

 Remember that no energy is required, and

molecules move down their concentration
gradients
 Passive transport
1. Simple diffusion
 Molecules simply cross cell membrane on their own,
down their concentration gradients

 Possible only for molecules that can cross the lipid

bilayer on their own
 Lipid-soluble molecules
 Examples: ethyl alcohol, vitamin A, steroid hormones
 Very small molecules
 Examples: water, carbon dioxide

 Rate depends upon

 Concentration gradient
 Size
 Lipid solubility
 Passive transport
2. Facilitated diffusion
 Molecules move down their concentration
gradients (as for simple diffusion), but…
 Transport proteins assist these molecules in
crossing the membrane
 No net energy expenditure! (This is a type
of diffusion…)
Example: transport of glucose
 Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a channel
 Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a carrier protein
(Outside Diffusion Molecule in
Cell) Channel Transit
Protein
Diffusion
Gradient

Carrier protein
has binding site Molecule enters Carrier protein changes Carrier protein resumes
binding site shape, transporting original shape
for molecule molecule across membrane

(Inside Cell)
Facilitated
Facilitateddiffusion
diffusionisis
passive
passivediffusion
diffusionwith
with
the
thehelp
helpof
oftransport
transport
proteins
proteins
 Passive transport
3. Osmosis
 Movement of water from a high [water] to an
area of low [water] concentration across a semi-
permeable membrane
 Note here that water can pass through, but glucose
cannot
 The effects of osmosis

 Compare solute and water concentrations

outside vs. inside the cell (sketches)
H2O

H2O
 Active Transport
1. Movement via active transport proteins
(sodium-potassium pump)

 Remember that energy is required, and

molecules are moved against their
concentration gradients
 Bulk (vesicular) transport
 Exocytosis - movement of materials out of the cell by fusion of
vesicles with the plasma membrane
 Example - export or removal of wastes in single-celled organisms
 Example – cells exporting proteins
 Endocytosis – Infolding of the plasma membrane to bring large
materials into the cell
 Pinocytosis, "cell drinking"– extra cellular fluid and materials
suspended in it (water and solutes) are enclosed in invaginating vesicle
 Used in digestive tract
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis – more specific with receptor binding
to molecules, bringing them in and concentrating into a coated pit
 The way insulin gets into your cells.
 Phagocytosis "cell eating" – brings large materials into a cell by
wrapping extensions of the plasma membrane around the materials and
fusing the extension together.
 How the human immune system ingests whole bacteria or one-celled
creatures eat
 pseudopodia “false feet” – plasma membrane extensions
 Bulk (vesicular) transport
1. Endocytosis
 Three types of endocytosis
 Pinocytosis
 “cell drinking”
 Extracellular fluid taken in

 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Specific for particular molecules
 Molecules bind to receptors.
 Receptor-molecule complex taken in

 Phagocytosis
 Large particles engulfed
Mmm...yummy bacteria!!

Help! I’m to be broken

down to mere macro-
molecules!!
Bulk (vesicular) transport
2. Exocytosis

3. Transcytosis
 Transcytosis in endothelial cells of the
capillary
•Can see this phenomena
in continuous capillaries
•Muscle, connective tissue,
exocrine glands and nervous
tissue

•Transport lumen

macromolecules in both
directions.

•Pinocytotic vesicles can

cross cell in about
2-3 minutes.
 Tight Junctions
 Seal tissues and
prevent leaks
 Link epithelial cells
together
 Prevent things from
moving through the
intercellular space
 Restrict migration of
proteins and
phospholipids
 Tight junctions
 Extracellular surfaces of two adjacent
plasma membranes are joined
together so there is no extracellular
space between them
 Occurs in a band around the entire cell
Belt desmosome
 Zonula adherens
 Another belt around
the cell
 Below the tight
junctions
 An anchorage
junction
 Associated with
actin filaments
 Space between
membranes can be
seen
 Desmosomes
 Like spot welds!

 Dense plaques with

fibers attached-
Anchor cells together
from one side to the
other.

 These cells withstand

lots of abuse!
 Spot Desmosomes
 A region between two cells where
membranes are separated by 20nm
 Dense accumulation of protein at the
cytoplasmic surface of the membrane
 Desmosomes, cont’d

 Keratin fibers extend from

the cytoplasmic surface
to other side of cell to
next desmosome
 Holds adjacent cells
together in areas of
stretching
 skin, cardiac muscle
 Hemidesmosome

 Assymetrical structures
 A plate anchors the basal part of cell to the
basal lamina
 This plate contains IFs called keratins or
tonofilaments
 Membrane plaque linking hemidesmosome
to basal lamina via anchoring filaments
 Contributes to overall stability of epithelia
Hemidesmosomes
 Gap junctions

 Protein channels link the cytosols of cells

 Passage of small molecules and ions (Na+, K+)
 Excludes large molecules
 Transmits electrical activity between cardiac
and smooth muscle cells
 Allows chemical messengers to cross from
one cell to another
 Coordinates activities between cells
 Gap junction connexons

 A connexon is a cylinder with a central

open pore
 One gap junction connexon is made up
of six connexins
 The pore is a hydrophilic channel
between two cytoplasms
 Plasma membranes come within 2-4nm
of each other
Gap junctions
Put Them All Together…
Cellular Junctions
Occluding jxns

zonula adherens

macula adherens