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Teaching Methodology-1-1
Teaching Methodology-1-1
METHODOLOGY
Main Objective
• By the end of the unit, the learner should be able to apply the
concepts and principles of teaching and learning
Sub objectives
• By the end of the unit the learner should be able to
• Explain the basic concepts and theories of learning
• Participate in curriculum development
• Develop instructional materials for teaching and learning
• Plan, implement and evaluate teaching/learning situation
Concepts and Theories of learning
• Definition of terms
• Learning domains/ stages of learning
• Factors that influence teaching and learning
• Trends in nursing education
• Characteristics of a good teacher
• Principles and skills used in teaching and learning
• Theories of learning
A. Definition of terms
• Learning
• A continuous process that results in the acquisition of new behavior
pattern through experience or practice
• Teaching
• The act of assisting the learner to modify his behavior through
experience, study or intuition. Imparting knowledge
• Learner
• Person acquiring knowledge or skills
• Teacher
• The person who transmits knowledge through personal contact
• Teaching methodology
• Technique used by the teacher to promote learning
• Climate setting
• The process of creating an atmosphere of free interaction between
the participants themselves and their facilitators
Learning
• A continuous process that alters behavior through training
• A learning situation is potentiated through four ingredients
a)Motivation
b) Information
c) Practice
d) Feedback
The change in behavior addresses a felt need, which occurs through
experience
Principles of learning
• What is a principle?
• A fact, rule, law about something that occur as a result of repeated
experience leading to the deeper understanding of ideas on the
processes of teaching and learning
Principles of learning
• Students learn what is relevant and useful
• When the material is presented in a sequential and logical manner
• Learn when actively involved
• When they receive feedback on their performance
• Conducive environment
• Recognizes peoples right to make mistakes
• Encourages openness of mind and trust in self
• Involves practice and repetition
• Speed of presenting and speed at which learners learn match
• Message is clear
• Learners are motivated
• People learn and remember things that are exciting, dramatic or
pleasant more easily than those boring unpleasant things
Principles of adult learning (Andragogy)
• Andragogy is the art of helping adults learn while pedagogy is the art
of helping children learn.
• The principles of adult learning include
It is self directed
The teacher facilitates learning rather than directing it
Adult learners learn best by being active rather than passive
Learning is optimum when the content are applicable immediately to
existing problems or their own situations
Principles of andragogy
Adult learners bring with them a wealth of experience
Adult learners can help each other because of their experience,
encourage them to do so
The learners should be encouraged to continuously evaluate their
learning
ASSIGNMENT
• Outline the principles of pedagogy
• Evaluate: the ability to make judgment & make decisions using the
acquired knowledge or inform action
• Verbs: evaluate, argue, select
b) Psychomotor Learning
• It involves learning of skills or practical ability.
• The skills involve movement thus motor/ psychomotor
• Levels in this domain include:
Imitation
Manipulation
Precision
Articulation
Naturalization
Levels of psychomotor learning
• Imitation: the learner is exposed to an observable action at the level
of his/her muscular system guided by an impulse to imitate it.
• Involves gross body movements
• Manipulation: learner is prepared for adjustment to a particular
action followed by finely coordinated movement
• The learner performs and acts according to instruction
• Precision: a high level performance. There is proficiency in
performance to reproduce a given act under instruction and guidance
• Innovative: the focus shifts to the learner while the teachers role is to
facilitate learning
• The teacher must define area to be taught, define the subject and
topic to be learnt, the objectives and content from the curriculum
• In innovative teaching, the teacher develops tutorial problems which
will be used to guide achievement of objectives stated in the
curriculum
• The teacher also produces a booklet containing the problems, as they
will be used in teaching the course
• Also develops a tutor guide to be used by the facilitator for the
course, which must contain solutions and useful tips for guiding the
learner
• Innovative learning processes are best described after the tutorial
booklet and tutor guide have been developed
• Once these are developed, a tutor can then carry a copy of the
booklets for each learner and his own and tutor guide to his tutorial
room
• These processes are difficult during preparation but easy during
tutorials and actual course delivery
Types of innovative teaching methods
• 1. problem based learning PBL
• 2. self directed learning SDL
Teaching methods
1. Lecture
2. Discussion
3. Demonstration
4. Simulation
5. Role play
6. Practical
7. Field visits
8. Independent study projects
• 9. Seminars
• 10.Tutorial
• 11.Project
• 12.Critical incident technique
• 13.Team teaching
• 14.Case study
• LECTURE:
• A lesson given orally by the teacher, with no student participation.
• Content may be distributed in printed form
• Traditional method
• Indications
• Introducing new topic
• Large audience
• Introducing facts
• Limited time
2. DISCUSSION
• Two way exchange of information, ideas, and feelings between the
teacher and the learners
Methods include
I. Small group discussion
II. Question and answer
III. Syndicate discussion
IV. Debate and panel
V. Snowball discussion
VI. Brainstorming
• Small group discussion:
• Teacher divides a class in small groups, gives tasks and facilitates
learning
• Question and answer:
• Introduction of the topic, what do the learners already know
• Review of learning experience eg field visit
• Informal revision of knowledge, discuss controversial issue
• Syndicate discussion:
• A class is divided into several groups. Each group prepares a different
assignment and report back to the whole class.
• Used to cover wide area of study
• Learners working on common surveys
• Debate and panels:
• When working with controversial topics
• Debates: the teacher controls the activity ensures arguments are
based on facts
• Panels: several students prepare a topic and present it to class, who
then ask the panel questions
• Snowball discussion:
• Every single person is involved in the discussion
• Each learner practices the facts to consider, uses these factors to
make a decision and listen to other peoples arguments
• Aka pyramidal group discussion
• Brainstorming:
• A method of collecting ideas from individual members of a group on
how to solve a problem
• Useful in generation of ideas
• Demonstration
• Refers to an inhibition/experiment/explanation of procedures
involving practical skills
• Evaluated through return demonstration
• Indications for demonstration
• To reinforce learning
• To show desired performance
• Ensures active participation
• To help students comprehend and learn information/facts
• To provide practical example as reinforcement for practical work
• Used to illustrate certain attitudes involved in skills
• Simulation
• A dynamic representation
• An imitation of real life situation
• Used to teach attitudes
Role play
Learner experiences or relives an event
Used to teach communication skills, decision making skills and attitude
• Practical:
• Involves learners learning in their future working areas
STEP 1-Tutorial 1
-Read through the problem,define terms,clarify concept,analyse
problem & set learning objectives.
Solve any problem(if possible at this point)eg.on Monday.
Students identify their own learning objectives(SOLO)
STEP 2-SDL
• -Self-Directed Learning means that the students study & look for
information on their own.
• They may do this on Tuesday, Wednesday & Thursday in preparation
for the tutorial session on Friday
STEP 3-Tutorial 2
-This is the second tutorial during which students do presentation of
gathered information, solution of problems & synthesis.
This would take place on a Friday
The Seven Step PBL Tutorial Process
• STEP 1:Clarify terms & concepts not readily comprehensible
• STEP 2:Define the problem
• STEP 3:Analyse the problem
• STEP 4:Draw a systematic inventory of the explanations inferred in
step 3
• STEP 5:Formulate learning objectives
• STEP 6:Collect additional information outside the group(SDL)
• STEP 7:Synthesize & test the newly acquired information
The 10-step PBL Tutorial Process
• STEP 1 to STEP 7:Similar to the 7 steps PBL Tutorial process
• STEP 8:Meet as groups to draw inventory of unresolved issues
• STEP 9:Second Self-Directed Learning
• STEP 10:Meet again & synthesize the newly acquired information
The 15-step PBL Tutorial Process
Was developed at Moi University Faculty of Health Sciences
First Tutorial
STEP 1:Group organization: Introductions
:Selection of chairman
:Selection of secretary
• STEP 2:Reading through the problem(aloud)
• STEP 3:Identifyng the problem
• STEP 4:Defining the problem
• STEP 5:Raising learning issues
• STEP 6:Resolving issues based on prior knowledge
• STEP 7:Organization of the unresolved issues
• STEP 8:Developing learning objectives from the organized unresolved
issues
First Self-Directed Learning(SDL)
• B) Educational objectives
• State clear, simple, precise and observable behavior
Ct….
• C) Behavioral objectives
• They state the actual behavior to be performed, the condition under
which it will be performed, the result of the performance and the
criteria that will be used to evaluate the product of the performance
Purpose of objectives
1. Guides the teacher and the learner to remain focused
2. Helps in keeping to the scope of study
3. Helps the teacher to be systematic
4. Influences self directed learning
5. Allows the teacher/learner to understand the subject with greater
clarity
6. Predetermines the expected outcomes for students
CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECTIVES
• The objectives should be SMART
• S-smart
• M-measurable
• A-attainable/achievable
• R- realistic
• T-time bound
QUALITIES OF GOOD OBJECTIVES
• RELEVANCE> most essential to the health needs of a community
• CONSISTENT> provides the same meaning /result each time
• UNEQUIVOCAL> no argument /dispute about the meaning
• FEASIBLE> can be attained or performed
• OBSERVABLE> seen to be happening
• MEASURABLE> quantified in an objective way
Components/criteria of behavioral objective
• There are three parts of an objectives, namely:
1) A verb
2) The condition under which the achievement will be demonstrated
3) The standard or criteria by which the performance will be evaluated
1. ACTION VERB ( act or performance)
• It describes what the learner is expected to do.
• It describes the specific behavior or activity of the learner
• The student will be able to, list, describe, illustrate, demonstrate
• The performance indicator is the act whose satisfactory performance
implies that the student is able to accomplish the task required
2. THE CONDITION
• Describes how the learner is going to carry out the activity to behave
in a specific manner under certain conditions.
• The teacher should describe the situation or specific condition under
which the learner is expected to carry out the activity
• Eg giving immunization in MCH
• It includes data, limitations &restrictions
3. STANDARD/CRITERIA
• This is the minimum acceptable accomplishment by the learner
• Note that the learner may not perform the expected task at a
maximum level but should acquire at least a certain amount of the
total knowledge or skill taught to them
ASSIGNMENT
• READ AND MAKE NOTES ON THE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF OBJECTIVES
TEACHING AIDS/ INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA
• These are objects or situations which facilitate teaching/learning process
and at the same time permits a teacher and learner to interact as much as
possible.
• The use of teaching aid simulates the learner through the following senses:
• Sight
• Hearing
• Touch
• Taste
• smell
Types of teaching aid
• Categorized into 3
1. Projected
2. Non projected
3. Sound
PROJECTED NON PROJECTED SOUND
OVERHEAD PROJECTOR FLIPCHARTS RADIO
VIDEOS FLANNEL BOARD VIDEO
TELEVISION PICTURES TELEVISION
LED- POWERPOINT POSTERS
WRITING BOARD
HAND OUTS
VALUE OF TEACHING AID
• Arouses interest
• Time saving in teaching
• Gives a new concept accurate impression
• Stimulates active teaching provides a shared experience
• Creates an opportunity for active learning
Factors influencing selection of teaching
aids
• The subject matter
• The objectives
• The type of learning tasks ie skills, attitude,or knowledge
• The learners background ie age, level of learning
Categories of media
Visual- seeing
Audio- hearing
Audio-visual- seeing and visual
GROUP ASSIGNMENT
• DISCUSS THE VARIOUS TYPES OF TEACHING AIDS, OUTLINING THE
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
a) Overhead projector
It projects transparencies from a horizontal table via a prism or mirror
& a lens
-A bright image appears on a screen behind the teacher
-The setting up of the screen depends on the type of room & the size of
the audience.
-There are two possibilities of projection:
a)projection from behind
b)projection slightly to the side (better viewing)
OHP CT….
• When lecturing, stand to the right or left of the projector so
that you can easily point out the important areas that you
want the learner to grasp.
• You can also view what the learner is seeing simultaneously
• Expose only what you are discussing & not the whole
transparency so that the learners can concentrate & take
down important points.
• In this way, the rest of the presentation will not distract
learners
When preparing transparencies
• Do not write too near the edge or you might lose half of the
image; Leave at least an inch of margin all around.
• For more complex drawings, prepare a pencil sketch then lay
the transparency over the sketch & copy onto the
transparency. You can also copy a diagram from a book.
• Lettering should not be too small, about 4mm(1/8 of an inch)
• A transparency should convey one theme.
• Put as much information as necessary but as little as possible
on a transparency.
• Ensure clarity & impact
• Leave room for future alterations.
• Store your transparencies with care to avoid moisture & dirt.
• Keep content down to 10 lines with 10 words on each line.
• When masking, use thin paper. This ensures that the lecturer
sees the whole transparency but the audience only the
information that has been revealed
Advantages of OHP
1. You are able to face the classroom & point out features appearing
on the screen easily using a pointer
2. It may not be necessary to darken the room
3. You are able to project a wide variety of materials.
4. Alternatively, they can be put up on top of each other showing
stages of development of an idea or structure
Disadvantages of using an OHP
1. The acetate sheets are expensive to obtain, but spoiled & cleaned X-
ray film is a useful alternative.
2. You should get a transparent & slightly bluish sheet that can be used
in the same way as transparent acetate sheets
3. Special felt pens are used for writing on the transparent sheets. If
they are difficult to obtain, the glass pencils used in laboratories are
a substitute.
4. Needs a lot of time 2 prepare &Erase with water or with spirit for
semi-permanent ink
Care and Maintenance of an OHP
After projection, do not remove the wire plug from the socket but
switch off the lamp & keep fan running until the bulb has cooled
down.
Keep lenses & mirrors free of dirt
Keep a spare bulb in stock at all times
Store semi-permanent transparencies together with master copies of
handouts in a file with unit block or subject concerned, so it can be
found easily &used again the following year.
B) LCD PROJECTOR AND LAPTOP
• In this system, content is typed in the power point in the
computer & projected onto a screen using the Liquefied
crystal device (LCD) projector.
2. NON-PROJECTED TEACHING AIDS
These are aids that you can find within your environment
-You can select these well in advance of the lesson & pre-test them before
classroom use.
These include:
The chalkboard & chalk/ white board & marker
Pictures
Flipcharts/ charts
Posters
Handouts
flannel boards
a) The chalk/white board
• These are the most easily available, convenient & most used
teaching aid
Guidelines in using the chalkboard to enhance learning
• Write only the essential points & examples e.g. your lesson
plan outline.
• This helps the learner copy & fill in all other relevant
information as you build up from introduction to conclusion.
• Write large enough letters/figures to be seen by all learners.
Ct…..
• Plan the board so that information develops from one stage
to the next stage.
• Deliver the lecture to your audience & not to the board, ie.if
you have to write, lecture first, then write on the board.
• Stand next to the board at an angle so that you can see your
learners frequently.
• -Maintain eye contact with the class
Advantages of chalk/white boards
• Easy to use
• Inexpensive
• Excellent for brainstorming
• Displays information
Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Messy
• Cannot hold a large amount of information
• No permanent record of information
• Lecture maybe delivered to the board instead of the learners
b) Pictures
• Can be in form of slides, photographs, picture-drawings, line
drawings or cartoons
• Good & appropriate pictures are sometimes difficult to
obtain or prepare
C) Charts
• Are cheap & easy aids to prepare
• Simple charts Can be made from butcher paper, old calendars, paper
boxes, manila paper, etc
• Flip charts are commercial plain papers
• -The pictures can be drawn by somebody else or traced from a book
• -The pictures should be labeled in legible handwriting
• -When labeling, remember to:
• Use thick felt pens
• Use different colors for emphasis
• Write in lower case letters, not capitals
• Do not write too much / don’t congest it
• When making a presentation using flipcharts, do not read
the chart as you talk.
• As you prepare the lesson or the materials for teaching,
make notes on your lesson plan to guide your discussion.
• This way, you can read your notes as you teach & yet be
facing the audience
Flipcharts
• Large sheets of paper usually in a tripod stand
• Used to display previously prepared notes or drawings
• Also used for brainstorming or discussions
• Advantages
1. Inexpensive
2. Excellent for brainstorming
3. Portable
Disadvantages of flipcharts
1. Time consuming
2. Messy
3. Cannot hold a large amount of information
d) Posters
They take longer to prepare than charts
-They may consist of words only, pictures only, or a mixture of both.
-Unlike flipcharts, posters are usually single-leafed.
-Posters need a lot of planning & testing before use.
Posters ct…..
-They can be prepared for two types of viewers:
1. For a mixed (heterogeneous)audience eg.on a street for the public
-In this case, it should deliver the message at a glance
2. For a captive audience, eg.in a class
• NB: When preparing a poster, remember to make it simple, use
simple language & avoid difficult words or slang & put as little as
possible on the poster
e) The real thing or object
• -It is the best teaching aid e.g. real baby instead of a doll
• -Try as much as possible to use the ‘real thing’ in your lesson
• -If it is not possible to demonstrate ‘the real thing’ think of
other teaching aids that are simulations of the real thing.
• The closer the simulation to the real thing, the better the
teaching aid is.
• This helps the learner to internalize & transfer the
impression he gets to the real thing
• It also helps the learner to start using the right attitudes &
find the right expressions to use from the start.
f) Handouts
• These are written papers given out by teachers to students
• They act as guides for work to be done, or references to be
looked up.
• They help remind students of the main points to remember
from a learning experience
• They should not be used as substitutes for manuals, texts &
references
• A handout is both a visual aid to learning & an addition to
private study.
Purpose of a handout
It is to help the teacher to:
1. Indicate the objectives of the lesson exercise
2. Indicate the relevance & define the area to be covered
3. Provide additional theoretical information
4. Provide a stimulus for further thinking
5. Give instructions for practical work; these should be specific &
complete
Uses/features/characteristics of a good
handout
A good handout should:
1. Set out the structure of a lesson to promote attainment of the
objectives
2. Benefit learning
3. Provide an infrastructure for the topic
4. Emphasize a framework for interaction between the facilitator &
learner
5. Help the learner to receive detailed information
6. Guarantee the accuracy of the transferred information
Useful guidelines when preparing a
handout
The introduction should relate the new material to the learner’s past
experience
Summarize the major ideas
Use major & minor topics
Leave space between paragraphs & sections for learners to make notes
Simplify your expressions
Label your illustrations, tables & graphs appropriately. A series of
diagrams building up to a complete concept may be more helpful than
one detailed diagram
Put questions & exercises within the text to stimulate
thinking
The content, language & spelling should be accurate.
The statements should be consistent with other texts or
manuals which the learners use.
Your handouts must be clear & arranged in a logical order
with good arrangement of headings, words & diagrams on
the page
g) Flannel board
• This is the device of choice for teaching villagers.
• All rural educators should know how to use it
• It is based on the fact that materials with rough surfaces
tend to adhere to each other
• If flannel cloth is not available, alternatives can be found.
Ct…..
• The board is put in front of the class, sloping slightly backwards
• Cards with a rough backing eg. sand paper, can be placed on the
board in the desired position.
• The cards can be moved or taken down at will.
• Make cards from large print or written words eg. newspaper cuttings,
photographs or dissected posters
Advantages of flannel board
1. It tells a story in which you can see things happen
2. It has strong colors that please
3. The pictures are large enough to be seen from some way
off.
4. It looks like things that people are familiar with
5. It arouses interest & questions
Disadvantages of flannel board
• Barazas are usually too big for flannel pictures to be seen
from the back
• when flannels are used in the open air, the wind may blow
the flannel graphs away