Cytoplasm

by
Prof. dr. Suzi H. Ibrahim
Lectures 1,2&3
 Staining
Basic dyes stains the acidic structures for example the Nuclei of
cells
They are the basophilic structures ( Likes basic dyes)

Acidic dyes stains the basic structures for example the cytoplasm
They are acidophilic structures( like acidic dyes)
 Heamatoxylin and Eosin stain (H&E )
• Heamatoxylin is a basic
dye which stains the
acidic structures blue
• Eosin is an acidic dye
which stains the basic
structures red
 The cell

• The cell is the structural and functional

unit of all tissues of the body.
• The cell is formed of a cytoplasm and a
nucleus
• Group of cells form tissues.
• Group of tissues from organ.
• Group of organs form system.
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 The cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is formed of a matrix or a
cytosol in which the organelles, the
cytoskeleton and the inclusions lie.
 Cytosol
• The cytosol is a colloidal or gel-
like structure which contains
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
enzymes together with minerals,
inorganic salts and water.
 The organelles
(Organoids)
• Organelles are minute living structures .
• They are essential for the life of all cells.
• Organelles are either membranous organelles
or non-membranous organelles.
 Membranous organelles
(covered with membranes)
1. Plasma membrane
2. Mitochondria
3. Rough surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
4. Smooth surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (sER)
5. Golgi complex
6. Endosomes
7. Lysosomes
8. Coated vesicles
9. Peroxisomes
 The cell membrane
(plasma membrane or plasma lemma)

• The cell membrane separates the cell from

the extracellular environment.
 With LM
• It is too thin to be visible.
• The line that can sometimes be seen between
adjacent cells is due to condensation of stain
on carbohydrate rich materials called cell coat
which can absorbs the stain.
 Cell membrane
EM: is formed of three layers and so is called
trilaminar, trilamellar or unit membrane.
 It appears as an outer dark electron-dense
layer and an inner dark electron-dense layer,
separated by an intermediate pale electron-
lucent layer.
 The molecular structure of the
plasma membrane
Plasma membrane consists of:
•lipids
•proteins
•carbohydrates.
 The lipid component of the plasma
membrane
Includes: phospholipid and cholesterol.
phospholipid molecules component:
• Are in the form of a bimolecular layer, often called a
lipid bilayer. arranged perpendicular to the cell
surface.
• Each phospholipid molecule has
two ends.
- Hydrophilic phosphate end or
head, facing the aqueous media
on either sides of the plasma
membrane.
- Two hydrophobic ends or tails
facing the central core of the
plasma membrane.
• The trilaminar EM appearance
of the cell membrane is due to
deposition of osmium on the
hydrophilic end groups.
Cholesterol component:
• Present in the inner and outer layers of the plasma membrane.
• Has a stabilizing effect on the cell membrane to increase its
rigidity.
• Helps to maintain the structural integrity of the plasma
membrane.
 The protein component of the plasma
membrane
Is formed of two types: integral proteins and
peripheral proteins.
A- Integral proteins: are firmly embedded in the lipid bilayer.
 Are present either as:
a- Small integral protein molecules projecting from the  membrane
surface and partly embedded in the lipid bilayer.
b- Trans-membrane proteins which extend trough the whole thickness of
the lipid bilayer and protrude on both sides.
B- Peripheral proteins: are loosely embedded in the lipid bilayer.
 They are present mainly on the inner surface of the plasma membrane
(but do not extend into the lipid bilayer).
 Functions of the proteins:

1- Act as channels which allow the passages of

ions and water soluble substances 
through the membrane.
2- Act as cell membrane receptors.
 The carbohydrate component of the plasma
membrane
and the cell coat or glycocalyx
Carbohydrate component of the plasma
membrane is formed of glycolipids and
glycoproteins.
 The cell coat (glycocalyx):
Is the sugar coat, present on the outer surface of the
plasma membrane.
Is formed of oligosaccharide chains linked to either
lipids (forming glycolipids) or to proteins (forming
glycoproteins).
Functions of the glycocalyx:
1.Holds the cells together.
2.Binds antigens and enzymes to the cell surface.
3.Helps cell to cell recognition.
4.Protects the cell from chemical and physical injury.
 The functions of the plasma membrane
- Maintains the structural integrity of the cell.
- Substances exchange between the cell and the surrounding by:
•Passive diffusion: water, ions and dissolved gases enter passively
across the plasma membrane through  a concentration gradient.
•Active transport: against concentration gradient and needs energy
•Endocytosis including phagocytosis, pinocytosis
•Exocytosis.
-Plasma membrane takes a part in the formation of microvilli, cilia and
falgella.

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 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are membranous
organelles concerned with the
production of most of the energy
needed by the cell. Power house of
the cell.
 LM of mitochondria
When stained with iron haematoxylin,
mitochondria appear with a dark blue colour
and in a variety of shapes as granules, filaments
or rod-shape.
 EM of mitochondria
 Mitochondria are the largest organoids
 Mitochondria are bounded by two membranes, separated
by a narrow inter-membrane space.
 The outer membrane is smooth.
 The inner membrane projects in the form of shelves called
cristae. Cristae vary in size and shape.

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Elementary particles:
Are attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Are club shaped, with a narrow stem attached to the crista.
Their heads contain enzymes which generate ATP.
The matrix:
Fills the cavity of the mitochondrion.

Mitochondria can divide and has a life span of 10 days.

Contin DNA and RNA, thus mitochondria can divide.
 Functions of mitochondria

1. Supply energy for cell activity with

production of ATP.
2. Play a role in regulation of the calcium
metabolism.

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 Endoplasmic reticulum
• Network of interconnected membranous
structures.
• TWO types:
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum(SER).
 RER
L/M
he sites of RER are indicated by cytoplasmic
basophilia.
RER are prominent in cells specialized for protein
secretion, such as pancreatic acinar cells, fibroblasts
and plasma cells.
 E/M
 Are anastomosing network of
intercommunicating flattened sacs or
cisternae.
 The cytoplasmic side of the membrane is
covered by attached ribosomes.
The lumen of the RER is continuous
with the perinuclear space and also
with the lumen of smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (sER).
Functions of the RER
Synthesis of secretory proteins and
lysosomal enzymes.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum SER
• Formed of anastomosing tubules which has no
attached ribosomes, thus their membrane appears
smooth.
 Functions of the SER

1. Lipid synthesis: as in the cells which synthesize steroid

hormones as cells of the adrenal cortex.
2. Formation of phosopholipids for all plasma membranes.
3. Detoxification of drugs (as barbiturates) in the liver cells.
4. Glycogen synthesis in the liver cells.
5. Regulation of intracellular calcium in relation to muscle
contraction.
Thus SER differs from RER in that:
1. SER lacks attached ribosomes.
2. SER is formed of anastomosing tubules and
not flattened cisternae.
3. SER does not synthesize proteins.
• Compare between RER and SER.
• Shape
• Ribosomes
• Function
 Golgi complex
• Membranous organelle
• Is involved in the secretory activity of the cell.
• LM:
• With H & E, Golgi complex appears as a pale
unstained area, known as a negative Golgi image as
plasma cells and osteoblasts.
• With silver stain, Golgi complex appears as a dark
fibrillar or granular network.
 Position
• Between the nucleus and the apical parts of
secretory cells as the cells lining the
epididymis.
• Surrounding the nucleus as in nerve cells.
 E/M

Golgi complex usually consists of three

components:
Golgi saccules
Transfer vesicles
Secretory vesicles.
 Golgi stacks:
Each stack is formed of:
-Three to ten interconnected saccules which are saucer-like.
-Each saccule has a narrow lumen and expanded ends.
Each stack has:
-Cis-face, also called Cis- or immature face of Golgi which is 
convex and lies close to the RER. Trance-face mature face of
Golgi, which is  concave and faces the  secretory vesicles.
 Transfer vesicles and secretory
vesicles
Transfer vesicles:
 Buff off and carry newly synthesized
proteins from the cisternae of the RER and
 float in the cytoplasm and  fuse with the
immature or cis face (immature face) of
Golgi.
Secretory vesicles:
 Budd of the periphery of trance face (mature face) of Golgi
and migrate to the  plasma membrane, discharging their
contents to the  outside by exocytosis.
N.B. The vesicles which bud off from the periphery of the
mature (trance) face of Golgi are either:
Secretory vesicles which are then extruded out of the cell by
exocytosis, or
Primary lysosomes which remain in the cytoplasm.
 Functions of the Golgi complex
• Concentration
• Modification
• Sorting out
• Packing
• Modification:
1.Glycosylation by adding carbohydrates to
proteins forming  glycoproteins
2.Sulfation by adding sulfur to glycoproteins
forming sulfated glycoproteins
• Sorting out and packing
Into secretory protein or lysosomal enzymes
• Plays a role in prohormone processing
Golgi complex concentrates and store the
precursors of the parathyroid hormone and
insulin hormone.
• Recycling and redistribution of the plasma
membrane
Golgi complex adds plasma membrane.
 Secretory vesicles
• Membraneous organelles
• L/M: Acidophilic granules
• E/M:
Membrane bounded
 Lysosomes
• Rounded membrane bound vesicles.
• LM: do not appear in H&E stained sections,
but can be demonstrated by histochemical
methods for acid phosphatases.
• EM appear as membrane bound vesicles with
variable electron densities.
The proteins of the lysosomal enzymes are formed
in the  RER then pass through the  transfer
vesicles into  the cis-face of Golgi  to the trans
face of Golgi. Primary lysosomes arise from the
periphery of the trans face of Golgi  primary
lysosomes.
Types of lysosomes:
1- Primary lysosomes
2- Secondary lysosomes
 PRIMARY LYSOSOMES:
• Newly formed secretory vesicles containing
hydrolytic enzymes
 SECONDARY LYSOSOMES:
When the primary lysosomes fuse with these
structures (phagosomes, old mitochondria,
multivesicular body), they empty their hydrolytic
enzyme into them for their digestion and the
structure is now termed secondary lysosome.
• Heterphagic vacuole: formed when primary
lysosomes fuse with the phagocytosed
extracellular material.
• Multivesicular body: formed when a pinocytotic
vesicles a fuse with a primary lysosomes.
• Autophagic vacuole: formed when primary
lysosomes fuse with any old cytoplasmic material
e.g. old mitochondria.
 Ribosomes
 Are non-membranous organelles.
 Formed of ribosomal ribo-nucleic acid
(rRNA) and proteins.
 Are synthesized in the nucleolus.
 LM
 Cannot be seen because they are very small.
 But because of its content rRNA, ribosomes are intensely
basophilic. Thus, sites in the cytoplasm rich in ribosomes
appear intensely basophilic (blue with Haematoxylin).
 Distribution of ribosomes:
a-Diffuse basophilia as in embryonic cells and erythroblasts.
b- Localized basophilia as in the basal parts of the cells of
the pancreatic acini.
c- Spotty basophilia as in Nissil’s granules in nerve cell body.

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 Diffuse basophilia
Spotty basophilia

Localized basophilia
 EM
• Are electron-dense particles.
• Each ribosome is formed of a large subunit and a small
subunit.
• Ribosomes are either:
a- Free ribosomes are not attached to membranous
organelles. The individual ribosomes are held together by a
strand of messenger (mRNA) to form  polysomes or
polyribososomes.

b- Attached ribosomes are attached to the outer

membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) by
their large subunits.
 Function of ribosomes

• The function of ribosomes is protein

synthesis.
• Free ribosomes synthesize  proteins which
are used to build up the cell.
• Attached ribosomes synthesize  proteins
which are transported to the Golgi complex
and then secreted out of the cell or form
primary lysosomes.
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 Microtubules
Non membranous organelles
LM: not appear
EM:
• Microtubules are straight, hollow tubules 25
nm in diameter & several micrometers in
length.

• Each microtubule has a wall composed of 13

protofilaments.
• Microtubules are dynamic structures that frequently
change their length by undergoing growth and
shortening.
 Function
• Support and maintain the characteristic
shape of the different cells.
• Facilitate and transport of macromolecules
and vesicles within the cells.
• Play an important role in cell division.
• Provide the basis for several structures e.g.
cilia, flagella and centrioles.
 Centeriole
• Non-membranous organoids.
• LM: Two dots close to the nucleus by iron
heamatoxylin stain
• 2 centrioles are arranged perpendicular to each
other.
• EM: Hollow cylinder made of 27 microtubules
embedded in fibrous matrix.
• Arranged in 9 bundles, each
Is formed of 3 microtubules
(Triplets)
 Functions of centrioles:
- Centrioles form the basal bodies of cilia and
flagella.
- Centrioles are site of formation of the mitotic
spindle in dividing cells.