Human Memory

Ms. Farwa Chaudhary

Lecturer
Lahore Garrison University

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 Memory
Processes involved
• Encoding involves forming a memory code. (looks,
sounds, means). It requires attention.
• Storage involves maintaining encoded information in
memory over time.
• Retrieval involves recovering information from
memory stores.

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Encoding: Getting information into the memory

• The role of attention is critical. Attention involves focusing on

a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Attention is usually
linked to a filter.
• Types of Encoding:
1. Structural encoding is relatively shallow processing that
emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus. (lowercase,
number, print)
2. Phonemic encoding emphasizes what a word sounds like.
3. Semantic encoding emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.
Level of processing theory proposes that deeper levels of
processing results in longer lasting memory codes.

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 Enriching Encoding
• The other dimensions of encoding are
1. Elaboration is linking a stimulus to other information at the
time of encoding.
2. Visual Imagery-the creation of visual images to represent the
words to be remembered-can also be used to enrich the
encoding.
3. Self referent encoding involves deciding how or whether is
personally relevant.
4. Dual coding theory holds that memory is enhanced by
forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to a
recall (Paivio, 1986).

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 Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory

• Sensory Memory preserves information in its

original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a
fraction of a second.
• Short Term Memory (STM) is a limited capacity store
that can maintain unrehearsed information for upto
about 20 seconds.
• Theorists originally believed that the loss of
information from STM was due to time related decay
of memory traces, but the follow up research
showed that interference from competing material
also contributes.
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LONG TERM MEMORY:
• Long term memory (LTM) is an unlimited capacity
store that can hold information over a lengthy period
of time.
• The information in the long term could be stored in-
definitively.
• Flash bulb memories, which are unusually vivid and
detailed recollections of momentous events.

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Organization of Knowledge in Memory
• Clustering is the tendency to remember similar or
related items in groups.
• A conceptual hierarchy is a multilevel classification
system based on common properties among items.
• A schema is an organized cluster of knowledge about
a particular object or event abstracted from previous
experience with the object or event. e.g knowledge
about funeral, wedding
• A script is a particular kind of schema that organizes
what people know about common activities e.g what
to say in restaurant.

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 Retrieval
• Tip of the tongue phenomenon- the temporary inability to
remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling
that it’s just out of reach.
• Contextual cues often facilitate the retrieval of information.
(going back to school)
• Source monitoring is the process of making attributions about
the origins of memory. E.g where the memory was
formed/where it came from
• A source monitoring error occurs when a memory derived
from one source is misattributed to another source.

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 Forgetting: When memory lapses
• Retention refers to the proportion of material retained.
• The three principal methods used to measure forgetting are
recall, recognition, and relearning.
1. A recall measure of retention requires subjects to reproduce
information on their own without any cues. E.g Q/A
2. A recognition measure of retention requires subjects to select
previously learned information from an array of options. E.g
M.c.qs
3. A relearning measure of retention requires a subject to
memorize information a second time to determine how much
time or effort is saved by having learned it before. E.g revision

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 Why we Forget?
• Ineffective Encoding (it appears as forgetting)
• Decay: Decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs
because memory traces fade away.
• Interference: Interference theory proposes that people
forget information because of competition from other
material. It has 2 kinds:
1. Retroactive interference occurs when new information
impairs the retention of previous learned information.
2. Proactive interference occurs when previously learned
information interferes with the retention of new
information.

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 Why we Forget?......
Motivated forgetting: It is called repression in Freudian
theory: keeping distressing thoughts and feelings
buried in the unconscious.

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 The Biochemistry of Memory
• Organic Amnesia: Two types
1.Retrograde amnesia involves the loss of memories for events
that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia.
2.Anterograde amnesia involves cannot form memories for
events that occur after the onset of amnesia.

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 Memory Systems
• Implicit (procedural) and explicit (declarative) memory: Implicit
memory is apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that
does not require intentional remembering. Explicit which involves
intentional recollection of previous experiences.
• Declarative VS Procedural memory: The declarative memory
system handles factual information. The non declarative memory
system houses memory for actions, skills, operations, and
conditioned responses.
• Semantic VS Episodic Memory: The semantic memory system
contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the
information was learned such as the names of colors, the sounds of
letters, the capitals of countries and other basic facts acquired over
a lifetime The episodic memory system is made up of chronological,
or temporarily dated, recollection of personal experiences. E.g past
personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.

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 References
Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and
Variations. USA: Wadsworth Cengage
Learning

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