Xxnceuzdl - Practical Research 2 (Final Term)

PRACTICAL
RESEARCH 2
QUATITATIVE (FINAL TERM)
CHAPTER 4: UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS
TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA
Quantitative Research Design

1.Exploratory research design – is often used to establish an initial understanding
and background information about a research study of interest, oftenly with very
few or no earlier related studies found relevant to the research study.
2.Descriptive research design – used to gather information on current situations
and conditions. It helps provide answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where, and the how of a particular research study.
Classification as Descriptive Design

Survey
Correlation Research
Evaluation Research
Formative evaluation
Summative evaluation
Classification as Descriptive Design

Survey
Correlation Research
Evaluation Research
Formative evaluation
ex. Needs Assessment
Process Evaluation
Implementation Evaluation
Program Monitoring
Summative evaluation
ex. Secondary Data Analysis
Impact Evaluation
Outcome Evaluation
Cost-effectiveness Evaluation
Causal Research Design – used to measure the

impact that an idependent variable (causing effect)
has on another variable (being effected) or why
certain results are obtained.
Points of Exploratory Descriptive Causal Research
Comparison Research Research
Research Approach Unstructured and Formal and Highly structured
flexible Structured
Degree of Problem Not well-defined Variables are Variables and
Identification defined relationships are
defined
When to used Initial research Often a follow-up Late stage of
to exploratory decision making
research
Goals and Provides insights Describe situations Explains the cause
Objectives on problem and effect
relationship
between variables
Points of Exploratory Descriptive Causal Research
Comparison Research Research
Sample size Small non- Large Large
representative representative representative
sample sample sample
Type of hypothesis Research questions Hypothesis is Hypothesis is

only nondirectional directional
Data management Data may not be Data are Data are
and measurement statistically statistically statistically
measurable measurable measurable
SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Sample Size Determination

A sample (n) is a selection of respondents for a research study to
represent the total population (N). Making a decision about sample size for
a survey is important.
Reasons for the use of samples:
1. A sample saves time compared to doing a complete census which
requires more time.
2. A sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting
a complete census.
3. A sample allows more particular attention to be given

to a number of elements than when doing a census.
4. There is a greater error in reporting results of a
census caused by inexperienced interviewers. There is less
sampling error in a survey.
5. Some research studies in the industry may only be
performed on a sample of items. Ex., testing the length of
time a battery will last
SLOVIN’S Formula in Determining the Sample Size

 Population (N) consists of members of a group that a
researcher is interested in studying the members of a group
that usually have common or similar characteristics.
 Margin of error is allowed error margin in research. A
confidence interval of 95% give a margin of error of 5%; a
98% gives a margin of error of 2%; a 99% confidence interval
gives a 1% margin of error.
Sampling Procedures
Sampling – is a formal process of choosing the correct subgroup
called a sample from a population to participate in a research study.
The subgroup shall be the representative of the large group from
where they were selected. To create a sample, you may follow any of
the following categories of sampling techniques: probability
sampling and non-probability sampling schemes.
4 Probability Sampling Procedures
1. Simple Random Sampling
This is the most frequently used type of probability sampling technique. This is
characterized by the idea that the chance of selection is the same for every member of
population.
 Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling follows specific steps and procedures in doing the
random selection of the samples. It requires a list of the elements and every nth
element in the list is drawn for inclusion in the sample.
Example: You have a list of 5,000 persons and you need a sample of 500, here are the
steps to follow:
 Divide the number of elements in the population by the desired sample size. In this
case, you divide 5,000 by 500 which gives 10.
 Choose a random number between one and the value you obtained from Step 1. in
this example, you choose a number between 1 and 10, let’s say you choose 5.
 Starting with the number you picked which is 5, you take every tenth (10 th) (from
Step 1) and you use 5 as your starting point. Select the samples whose number 5,
15, 25, 35, 45 and so on until you reach the desired sample size 500.
2. Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves
the division of a population into smaller sub-groups known as strata.
In stratified random sampling, or stratification, the strata are
formed based on members' shared attributes or characteristics such
as income or educational attainment. It is also called proportional
random sampling or quota random sampling.
• Stratified random sampling allows researchers to obtain a sample
population that best represents the entire population being studied.
• Stratified random sampling involves dividing the entire population
into homogeneous groups called strata.
• Stratified random sampling differs from simple random sampling,
which involves the random selection of data from an entire
population, so each possible sample is equally likely to occur.
3. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a probability sampling technique where researchers divide the
population into multiple groups (clusters) for research. Researchers then select
random groups with a simple random or systematic random sampling technique for
data collection and data analysis.
Cluster sampling is defined as a sampling method where the researcher creates
multiple clusters of people from a population where they are indicative of
homogeneous characteristics and have an equal chance of being a part of the
sample.
Non-Probability Sampling Procedures
• Convenience Sampling
A convenience sample is a type of non-probability sampling
method where the sample is taken from a group of people
easy to contact or to reach. For example, standing at a mall or a
grocery store and asking people to answer questions would be an
example of a convenience sample.
• Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined
as a non-probability sampling technique in which the
samples have traits that are rare to find. This is a
sampling technique, in which existing subjects provide
referrals to recruit samples required for a research study.
• Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling (also known as judgment,
selective or subjective sampling) is a sampling
technique in which researcher relies on his or her
own judgment when choosing members of
population to participate in the study.
• Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a type of non-probability sampling
method. This means that elements from the population are
chosen on a non-random basis and all members of the
population do not have an equal chance of being selected
to be a part of the sample group.
QUESTIONNAIRE AND ESTABLISHING VALIDITY
AND RELIABILITY
Questionnaire is a set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers,

devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study.
5 Types of Variables
 Dependent variables
These are variables that you are trying to explain.
 Independent or exploratory variables
These are variables that cause, influence or explain a change in the
dependent variable.
AND RELIABILITY
 Control variables
These are variables that are used to test for a possible erroneous relationship
between the idendified independent and dependent variables.
 Continuous variables
These are variables defined on a continuous scale. Example are time, weight,
length, or money.
 Discrete variables
These are variables which can also be counted but must be a whole number.
AND RELIABILITY
Questionnaire Conceptualization
 Choose the response scale use
 Generate the items or questions of the questionnaire based on the purpose and
objectives of the research study.
 Choose the type of questions in developing statements
Dichotomous question a closed question where there can be only two answers,
commonly 'yes' or 'no' . This type of questioning may be used in questionnaires during focus
grouping or other market research. The advantages to a Dichotomous Question is that it is
quick and does not allow ambivalent answers.
AND RELIABILITY
Open-ended question a question that cannot be answered with a "yes" or "no"

response, or with a static response. Open-ended questions are phrased as a
statement which requires a longer response. The response can be compared to
information that is already known to the questioner.
Validity of Questionnaire
Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to
measure. If research has high validity, that means it produces results that
correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the physical
or social world.
AND RELIABILITY
Ways to assess the validity

1. Face validity the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as
covering the concept it purports to measure.
2. Content validity refers to the extent to which the items on a test are
fairly representative of the entire domain the test seeks to measure.
3. Criterion-related validity is a measure of agreement between the
results obtained by the given survey instrument and more
"objective" results for the same population.
AND RELIABILITY
4. Concurrent validity refers to the extent to which the results

of a measure correlate with the results of an established
measure of the same or a related underlying construct
assessed within a similar time frame.
5. Predictive validity the degree to which test scores accurately predict scores on a
criterion measure.
6. Construct validity the extent to which the measure 'behaves' in a way consistent
with theoretical hypotheses and represents how well scores on the instrument are
indicative of the theoretical construct.
AND RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to a condition where measurement process

yields consistent responses over repeated measurements.
Some ways to assess reliability of questionnaire:
1. Test-retest reliability
2. Split-half method
3. Internal consistency
PLANNING DATA ANALYSES USING STATISTICS
Purpose of Data Analysis Plan

The purpose of a data analysis plan is to gather useful information to find
solutions to research questions of interest.
 describe data sets;
 determine the degree of relationship of variables;
 determine differences between variables;
 predict outcomes; and
 compare variables
All of the above could be manipulated by using any or a

combination of the following data analysis strategies.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
 Descriptive Data Analysis
 Inferential Data Analysis
Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation

 Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale
 Ratio Scale
A. Descriptive Data Analysis

1. Measures of Central Tendency is a single value that attempts
to describe a set of data by identifying the central position within
that set of data. (Mean, Median, and Mode)
Example:
Suppose, senior high school students were asked how many
hours they spent on the computer, and in what subject they often
used the computer for. Results of the survey could indicate that on
school student spent more than two hours studying his/her

research subject using computer.
In this example, the findings are presented as averages. The
use phrase “on the average” and word “typical” denote that one
is interested to determine the center or middle of a set data.
Mean
Often called the arithmetic average of a set of data, the mean is
the sum of the observed values in the distribution divided by the
B. For Grouped Data

Grouped data are data formed by aggregating individual
observations of a variable into groups, so that a frequency
distribution of these groups serves as a convenient means of
summarizing or analyzing the data.
Median
The median is the midpoint of the distribution. It
represents the point in the data where 50% of the values
fall below that point and 50% fall above it. When the
distribution has an even number of observations, the
median is the average of the two middle scores. The
median is the most appropriate measure of central
Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set
of observations. In cases where there is more than one
observation which is the highest but with equal frequency,
the distribution is bimodal (with 2 highest observations) or
multimodal with more than two highest observations. In
cases where every item has an equal number of
2. Measures of Dispersion
Measures of dispersion describe the spread of the
data. They include the range, interquartile range,
standard deviation and variance. The range is given
as the smallest and largest observations. This is the
simplest measure of variability.
Example
Suppose you ask a group of senior high school students
to rate the quality of food at the school canteen and you find
out that the average rating is 3.5 using the following scale: 5
(Excellent); 4 (Very Satisfactory); 3 (Satisfactory); 2 (Fair);
and 1(Poor).
How close are the ratings given by the students? Do their
ratings cluster around the middle point of 3, or are their
ratings spread or dispersed, with some students giving
ratings of 1 and the rest giving ratings 5?

The extent of the spread, or the dispersion of the data is
described by a group of measures called measures of
dispersion, also called measures of variability. The
measures to be considred are the range, average, or mean
deviation, standard deviation and the variance.
RANGE
STANDARD DEVIATION
The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the spread
or variation of data about the mean. SD computed by
calculating the average distance that the average value is
from the mean.
INTERPRETATION of the STANDARD DEVIATION
The standard deviation allows you to reach conclutions
1. Approximately 68% of the scores in the sample falls

within one standard of the mean
2. Approximately 95% of the scores in the sample falls
within two standard deviations of the mean
3. Approximately, 99% of the scores in the sample falls
within three standard deviations of the mean
INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS

Inferential statistics refers to statistical measures and
techniques that allow us to use samples to make
generalizations about the population from which the
samples are drawn.
TEST of SIGNIFICANCE of DIFFERENCE (T-test)
 Between Means
mothers and non-working mothers, healthy and

malnourished children and the like)
TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis testing is an important part of the data plan in

conducting a research study. If the researcher wishes to
draw some inferences from the data taken from a sample
which may have a wider generalizability, this is referred to
as inferential statistics and it is more complex than
descriptive statistics.
Inferences applied to the total population are valid under
two conditions, namely: there is a target population and
Population and Sample

A parameter is a number that describes a whole population,
while a statistic is a number that describes a sample.
Parameters are numbers that summarize data for an entire
population. Statistics are numbers that summarize data from a
sample.
A sample is an analytic subset of a larger population. The use
Statistical Significance
Statistically Significant means that a relationship between
two or more variables is caused by something other than by
random chance. Significant also means probably true (not due to
chance). When the result is highly significant, it means that it is
very probably true.
The level of significance shows how likely the results of your
Hence, statistical hypothesis testing is uded to determine

whether the result of a data set is statistically significant.
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and
has to be tested for its truth or falsify.
The two types of hypothesis are the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis.
In inferential statistics, the null hypothesis is a default

hypothesis that a quantity to be measured is zero.
In statistical hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis is
a position that states something is happening, a new theory is
preferred instead of an old one. It is usually consistent with the
research hypothesis because it is constructed from literature
review, previous studies, etc.
TYPE I and TYPE II ERRORS

Type I error is committed when a researcher rejected a null
hypothesis when in fact it is true.
Type II error is the error that occurs when the data from
the sample produce results that fail to reject the null
hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is false and
should be rejected.
PARAMETRIC and NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS

 Parametric tests are used for interval and ratio scales of
measurement. They require that the samples are observations
are drawn from normal distributed populations and the selection
of each case should be independent of the other. The population
should have equal variances.
 Nonparametric test do not specify normal distributed
PRESENTING AND INTERPRETING DATA IN
TABULAR AND GRAPHICAL FORMS
Textual Presentation of Data

Textual presentations use words, statements, or paragraphs
with numerals, numbers or measurements to describe data.
Example:
There are 42,036 barangays in the Philippines. The largest
barangay in terms of population size in Barangay 176 in
Caloocan City with 247 thousands persons. It is followed by
Tabular Presentation of Data

Tables present clear and organized data. A table must be clear
and simple but complete.
A good table should include the following parts:
 Table number and title – These are placed above the table. The
title is usually written right after the table number
 Caption subhead – This refers to columns and rows
ous Employment Sectors

 Source – It indicates if the data is secondary and it should be

acknowledged.
Employment Sector 18-25 26-35 36-45
Age Group Age Group Age Group
Agriculture 3 8 12
Education 10 15 15
Health 15 28 35

Tabular Presentation With Textual Analysis

A information sheet is distributed to 300 junior and
senior high school students of a certain school to gather
data on background of the students in terms of sex, grade
level and socioeconomic status as measured by monthly
family income.
Graphical Methods of Presenting Data

A graph or chart portrays the visual presentation of data using symbols
such as lines, dots, bars or slices. It depicts the trend of a certain set of
measurements or shows comparison between two or more sets of data or
quantities.
Charts and graphs are very useful in simplifying the presentation of
research reports. They help students and researchers understand data
quickly and interestingly.
A good graph or chart shows that the line x and y axis has a heading
and units are included. The figure number usually placed below the
figure.
Line Graph
A line graph is a type of chart used to show information that changes
over time. We plot line graphs using several points connected by straight
lines. We also call it a line chart. The line graph comprises of two axes
known as 'x' axis and 'y' axis. The horizontal axis is known as the x-axis.
Double Line Graph

A double line graphs has two lines connecting points to show
continuous change in the data over time.
Bar Graph or Bar Chart

A bar graph uses bars to compare categories of data. It may be drawn
vertically or horizontally. A vertical graph is best to use when comparing
means or percentages between distict categories. The categories are measured
independently and compared with one another. A horizontal bar graph may
contain more than 5 categories. A bar graph is plotted on either the x-axis or
y-axis. The categories may be plotted on one axis while the other axis
contains the numerical values that represent the data being measured.
Pie Charts or Circle Graphs

A pie chart is usually used to show how parts of a whole compare to
each other and the whole. The entire circle represents the total, and the
parts are proportional to the amount of the total they represent.
The amount going to each part is expressed as a percentage; then, a
circle is divided into pieces proportional to the percentage of each
category. This is done by multiplying the percentage share by 360
degrees.
Table OF Content
Chapter 1 (Problem and its Background)
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background of the Study
1.3 Statement of the Problem
1.4 Hypothesis
1.5 Objective of the Study
1.6 Conceptual Framework
1.7 Significance of the Study
1.8 Scope and Limitation
1.9 Definition of Terms
Chapter II
2.1 Review of Related Literature

Chapter III (Research Methodology)
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Instrument of the Data Gathering
3.3 Treatment of Data…
3.4 Respondents
Chapter IV (Presentation, Analysis, Interpretation of Data)
4.1 Data Gathering Technique
4.2 Data Interpretation

Chapter V
5.1 Summary
5.2 Findings
5.3 Conclusion
5.4 Recommendation
Bibliography
1.1Reference
Appendix
 Cover Page
 Abstract
 Acknowlegment
 Table of Contents
These will be place in a separate paper/page.
DRAWING LOGICAL CONCLUSIONS FROM
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Conclusions represent inferences drawn from the finding of the study.

The number of conclusions coincide with the number of specific findings.
You have to formulate the conclusions concisely and briefly. It should not
contain any number or measurements. If there are tested hypotheses in the
study, the rejection or acceptance of hypotheses are placed under
conclusions.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Strategies for Writing an Effective Conclusion

1. Conclusions are intertwined with Introduction
Intertwining your conclusion with the Introduction of your research
paper can be a good strategy as you will end with the scenario that you
have evidences to contribute a new understanding to a field of study.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Example:
Introduction
Reproductive health education is one area of research that should be
taken up in schools. High school students should be exposed to innovative
ways of disseminating and communication issues on reproductive health
education of high school students shall be the focus of the study.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Conclusion
The high school student respondents are not fully aware and have little
knowledge in reproductive education on the following areas: social and
gender related issues, family planning and other clinical services.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
2. Conclusions are inferences and generalizations based upon findings

Example:
Based on a research study on “Factors Affecting the Career Choices of
High School Students “two (2) conclusions can be drawn from findings of
the study:
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Conclusion 1
Males prefer technology-based courses while females prefer business-
oriented courses.
Conclusion 2
There is a significant difference between the career choices of male and
female high school respondent.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
3. Conclusions should specifically answer the questions posed in the

“Statement of the Problem” of your research study.
Example:
If the profile of the respondents will be used to test for variation on
other measures.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Conclusion
1. Majority of the respondents are aged 12-16 and mostly are males
2. Respondents of the study are mostly Catholics
3. Among the profile of the respondents, age and gender are
significantly related to achievement in mathematics.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
4. Conclusion should contain facts or usual results from the inquiry or

research study. Conclusions should never be based from implied or
indirect implications of the findings.
Example
In a research study on the “Evaluation of Mainstreaming Special Education
(SPED) for visually Impaired” of DepEd, results indicated that teachers are not
majors of SPED and that the facilities are inadequate to support the program.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
It cannot be concluded that mainstreaming SPED for visually impaired

is weak due to non-qualification of teachers are lack of facilities. These
statements are implied or indirect. Further study should be made to
determine the weakness of the SPED program due to school factors such as
teacher qualifications and adequacy of facilities.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
OTHER GUIDELINES in WRTING CONCLUSIONS

1. Conclusions should be clearly, concisely, and briefly stated.
2. Conclusions should be original and accurate
3. Conclusions should not introduce new ideas or information not
related to your research study
4. Conclusion should leave the reader with an interesting final impression.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
5. Conclusions should refer only to the subjects or population of your

research study.
6. Conclusions should contain categorical statements. Refrain from using
words like perhaps or maybe, or those words that would imply
unresolved issues.
7. Conclusions should not contain apologetic statements or unresolved
problems in the study.
FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations typically play a vital portion of a research study.

Formulating recommendations is easy, provided the findings and
conclusions have been fully explained and completed. Recommendations
are based on the findings of the study. They should not be based on your
own beliefs or biases. They should not be too broad to lose its relevance to
the exact topic of your research study.
Characteristics of Recommendations
 Relevance to the study
Relevance measures the degree to which a certain variable is related to
useful to what is being talked about. Recommendations for things not
discussed in the study is irrelevant.
 Logical reasoning
The recommendations should be well thought of and with valid reasons.
 If findings, for example, is too large class size, it is only logical to
recommend an ideal class size to create a healthy teaching and
learning environment.
 Feasibleness and attainability

The recommendations based on the findings and conclusions should be
practical, workable and achievable. A recommendation pertaining to the
need to improve and upgrade the science laboratory in public schools is
feasible and attainable.
Purposes of a Recommendation
1. Policy recommendations
A policy serves as a guideline in promulgating certain
regulations in various sectors of the society. Policy
recommendations should be included as an output of research.
Researchers can use the findings of their research studies to effect
change in policies already being implemented.
The recommendation actions should be specified, the steps

required to implement the proposed actions and what resources
are needed should also be included.
1. Discussion of the problems based on the findings and what
should be done to solve the problem.
2. Discussion of the benefits or advantages to the agency or
organization.
3. The feasibility or viability of the proposed policy

4. The plan of action and the evaluation process to ensure success of
proposed policy recommendation.
Sample Policy Recommendation
 On lack of teacher preparation
“The teacher preparation and development programs should include
development of pedagogical knowledge and competencies to handle K
to 12 program”
2. Recommendation For Future Research Directions

It is also ideal to present and discuss actions or off-shoots of
your research for further study validation purposes. You may
present or discuss additional research which you were not able to
include in your research but worth while doing.
3. Recommendations to some Problems Discovered in the

Research Study
In the research study on the “Evaluation of Mainstreaming
Special Education (SPED) for Visually Impaired” by DepEd,
results indicated that teachers are not majors of SPED and the
facilities are inadequate to support the program.
Sample recommendations:
1. Hire qualified teachers to handle the program.
2. Conduct regular trainings/workshops and other faculty
development programs to improve the capabilities of current
teachers.
3. Improve existing facilities, instructional materials,
curriculum,
teaching approaches, school management and other support

systems to improve effectiveness of mainstreaming SPED
program of DepEd.
4. Recommendation for Improvement or Change

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PRACTICAL

Quantitative Research Design

Classification as Descriptive Design

Classification as Descriptive Design

Causal Research Design – used to measure the

Type of hypothesis Research questions Hypothesis is Hypothesis is

Sample Size Determination

3. A sample allows more particular attention to be given

SLOVIN’S Formula in Determining the Sample Size

Questionnaire is a set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers,

Open-ended question a question that cannot be answered with a "yes" or "no"

Ways to assess the validity

4. Concurrent validity refers to the extent to which the results

Reliability refers to a condition where measurement process

Purpose of Data Analysis Plan

All of the above could be manipulated by using any or a

Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation

A. Descriptive Data Analysis

school student spent more than two hours studying his/her

B. For Grouped Data

ratings of 1 and the rest giving ratings 5?

1. Approximately 68% of the scores in the sample falls

INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS

mothers and non-working mothers, healthy and

Hypothesis testing is an important part of the data plan in

Population and Sample

Hence, statistical hypothesis testing is uded to determine

In inferential statistics, the null hypothesis is a default

TYPE I and TYPE II ERRORS

PARAMETRIC and NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS

Textual Presentation of Data

Tabular Presentation of Data

PRESENTING AND INTERPRETING DATA IN

 Source – It indicates if the data is secondary and it should be

Tabular Presentation With Textual Analysis

Graphical Methods of Presenting Data

Double Line Graph

Bar Graph or Bar Chart

Pie Charts or Circle Graphs

Chapter 1 (Problem and its Background)

1.2 Background of the Study

1.3 Statement of the Problem

1.5 Objective of the Study

1.6 Conceptual Framework

1.7 Significance of the Study

1.8 Scope and Limitation

1.9 Definition of Terms

2.1 Review of Related Literature

3.1 Research Design

3.2 Instrument of the Data Gathering

3.3 Treatment of Data…

4.1 Data Gathering Technique

4.2 Data Interpretation

Conclusions represent inferences drawn from the finding of the study.

Strategies for Writing an Effective Conclusion

2. Conclusions are inferences and generalizations based upon findings

3. Conclusions should specifically answer the questions posed in the