MEDICINE BEFORE

HIPPOCRATES

Prof. Dr. Ayşegül Demirhan Erdemir

e-mail:
ayseguldemirhanerdemir@gmail.com
 CONCEPT OF THE MEDICAL HISTORY

Historical periods are also found in medicine as in

every science. We know that history is a science to
get a more trustworthy position for today by
examining yesterday, in order to pre­pare a better
future than both past and today by avoiding from
mistakes for tomorrow.
But, the history is as useful as the historian can be
objective and can appraise the events in the condi­
tions of that time. It becomes so dangerous a crop of
the chemistry of thought that is not useful outside
intoxicating the communities.
 We know that the history searches for the
migrating re­sults of the past civilization, directs the
civilizations of tomorrow. It teaches the
generations of today who are the architect of
tomorrow to give the decrees of value not in
space but in time. It defenses us from deciding
according to limited experiments and
observations.
Who could ap­preciate, how this local victory
played a roll on the destiny of Europe, when a small
Seljuk army under Alpaslan's commandership had
defeated one hundred thousand Byzantium armies in
Malasgirt on August the twenty sixty, ten seventy
 The history that is written for educated (cultured)
man is rather than choronology and biog­raphy is a
science which searches for the results of events
which rotates in environments in where, past
personages were trained to be valueable in history.
That is, it doesn't remain on the surface, it
goes in depth.
The histories that are written for the
communities of people, mostly state a lot of events
and heroic men. But, history couldn't reach for
positivism of mathematics, because it is social
science such as sociology, law and philosophy and
neither is it possible. The first fruit of the thought of
 In fact, the first fruit of the thought of man
also became theology. In fact, the first man
who opened his eyer in an unknow world for
himself, whereever he looked, met with fear
and surprise and he looked for a support.
Man combined every natural event with the
metaphysical forces and he looked for the ways to
throw on himself the favor of those powers, to
exorcise their hatred from himself. Thus, he ma­
terialized and symbolized every one of powers of
physics which was imagined and at the end idols
arose. The philosophy is the first branch of thought
that is separated from theology .
 Medicine is the first branch of science that is
separated from philosophy. In the broad
meaning, medicine is at the same age as the first
man and even, with all living creatures. This
specifies the importance of these sciences.

In fact, according to an account in the universe,

that is ten billion years old, in the world that is
about four billion years old, the life arises three bil­
lion years, ago, this is a kind of moss found at
Transval in Africa. Single cellulars that are the
vanguards of classes of animals were seen one
hundred fifty million year ago.
We also accept the life of man which is one million
years old, is only about seven thousand years old.
Our old­er knowledge that had reached for a hundred
thousands of years ago was also possible with pa-
leontologic, anthropologic and archeologic findings
that we found in some excavations.
In fact, the skeletons of men that belong to
stone age and remain approximately 500000
years, teach us a lot of things. Even in the
skeletons of primitive men of a hundred thousand
years, it is from time to time encountered many
vertiges of diseases, the inflammation of bone
rheumatism or the damage of tumours.
 Primitive men, even the first living creatures used
their instincts in natural effects such as the changes
of climate, winds, the floods, earthquakes and in the
cases of diseases or injuries.
These instincts of animals continuously remained
in the same form. But, instincts of men de­veloped
by passing from various metaphysical, mystical,
religious and empirical stages and they reached for
modern medicine of today. For example, the snake
which a wakes from winter sleep, doesn't see well.
For this reason, it eats fennel at once .
 The history of medicine also began with
objective and scientific works and findings in the
meaning of today.
At first, medicine was separated from
philosophy and then, many sciences such
as alchemy which is the mother of modern
chemistry, astrology, physics and
mathematics became independent by
separating from philosophy. Medicine has
reached today by passing of some periods.
These periods are as following:
 
1.The Period of Instinct
In this period, men treated their diseases with their
instincts.
2.The period of Religious Medicine
The knowledge of health with regard to instincts
of men transferred the famous persons of the
community as leaders of tribe, the heroic men,
the priests and magicians and so, the period of
religious medicine arose.
In this period, religious men treated the diseases
and relig­ious causes such as the angers of the God
were accepted as the reasons for the diseases .
3.3)MMystical Period
3)Mystical period
It was also developed from religious thoughts.
The first man was unable to under­stand the
reasons of diseases except for exceptional
illnesses.
Thus, the stars, natural events such as the
change of climate, eclipse, storms, lightning,
thunder were accepted as the reasons for diseases
during many centuries.
Moreover, the first man thought that the causes
of the diseases were the anger of the demons.
That is, the hate of the demons and natural events
 For example, the smell of pitch took out demons
and so, the patient was cured in this way.
Moreover, some mineral and vegetal drugs such
as henna, salt, aloe were burnt to take out the
demons from the body.
Furthermore, to read Koran, to sacrifice were
the methods that were applied for religious
purpose. Demons can be the first explanation of
microbe concept of today.
Because, according to primitive men, the results
of acute diseases, convulsions, rheumatism,
paralysis and neuro­tic pains, insanity
convulsions, cholera and smallpox, epidemic
4.Empirical Period
In this period,the diseases were treated with
drugs. That is, men made use of various plants
for their diseases. This period was also present in
the primitive medicine. Empirical applica­tions
are also seen in the primitive tribes of today.
Afterwards, medicine reached the scientific
period in the period of Hippocrates (in the fifth
century B.C) in the ancient Greece.
 As it is seen that the development of medicine,
that is, the history of medicine is a very broad
branch and it has a great emphasis. Moreover,
medical ethics is also a science that the scientif­ic
men have emphasized since Hippocrates, the
founder of scientific medicine in the fifth cen­tury
B.C
IMPORTANCE OF THE MEDİCAL
HİSTORY

Medical history is an important science

from the point of various causes:

1)This branch is seen as the only cultural scientific

branch. Moreover, this branch is often accused of
dealing with old theories. But, modem medicine
depends upon certain basic philo­sophical
assumptions and scientific theories.
It is true that modern medical theories of today
will be the old theories of tomorrow and they will
be the subjects of medical history. Modern men
see tomorrow and they will be the subjects of
medical history.
Modern men see only what they are prepared
to see, a new outlook is always needed in order
to see something fundamen­tally new.
This characteristic is present in only medical
history and to observe the events with a new
outlook is the characteristic of medical science.
2)To study and to teach the medical history to
medical students is very necessary for the medical
faculties, today. Medical history is full of
interesting events and valuable lessons. For this
reason, to study the medical history is useful for
students and scholars.

 
3)Many scientific methods are found to
investigate this science. But, perhaps the
most usual reason for studying medical
history its the desire to understand
medicine itself and to grasp its techniques,
its organization and its underlying ideas.

Thus, the medical systems of earlier times are

instructive both in their similarities and in their
dissimilarities to medicine of today. On the other
hand, in spite of all the unfamiliar theories and
techniques, the medicine of former periods has
 Most of the problems were the same, The study
of how solutions were approached, obtained or
missed in the past, helps in findings or at least
understanding the solutions of our own time.
Answers given to problems today become more
intelligible when they are seen as the continuation
of answers given in for­mer times .
4) One of the great obstacles to an
understanding of modem medicine is its
complexity, its incredible wealth of
seemingly unrelated details.

To solve this complexity is necessary to

in­vestigate the medical history. Because,
the historical details are written in the
chronological form in the medical
history.
5)Furthermore, to study the medical
history supplies the possibility of
comparison with modern medicine of
today.

Moreover, the study of universal medicine of

every nation is very important from the point of
learning knowledge of the nations about medicine
and so, to learn the medical history is very
necessary.
6) Medical history is more than mental
gymnastics. The history of clinical
observation and therapeutics, and
particularly of diseases, furnished data
which will still yield new insights.

A person who learns the medical

history, understands how the truth of
today will be the mistake of tomorrow
and he accepts the nev realities .
7) Medical history also emphasized social
factors of disease and health. Powerful
social factors determine whether poeple
fall sick or not, and how and with what
results they are treat­ed.

A doctor can not appreciate too early the fact that

his profession is a part and product of society and
that it is always closely connected with religion,
philosophy, economics, politics and the whole of
human culture.
 His education, social status and remuneration
and, unfortu­nately his specialization as well
depend on the tastes and decisions of society. So,
medical his­tory also deals with this nonscientific
social background of medicine and it investigates
social factors.

8)Furthermore, the education in medical

history can produce moral and ethical
values in the doctor of the future.
9)Moreover, medical history emphasizes
folkloric medicine. We know that folklore is a
science of daily life and culture of people.
Folkloric medicine also has some primitive
treat­ment and false beliefs as in other
professions.
A scientist must investigate the scientific charac­
teristic of the method of a treatment among people
and its source. There are two different kinds of
folkloric treatments of various disorders among
people in Turkey. One of them is the organ­ic
treatments and in these therapies, various drugs
are used in the form of primitive prescrip­tions.
 Pharmacological effects of some drugs are also
accepted in modern medicine. Thus, the scientific
validity of some primitive information that has
been applied since ancient ages, is proved by
scientific investigations. But, some primitive
methods haven’t pharmacological ef­fects. So,
these kinds of therapies are harmful to the
patients.
Today, some formules with re­spect to drugs are
given to people by Herbalists in some cities of
Turkey and these primitive formulas are prepared in
the form of some pharmaceutical preparations such
as pill, infusion, powder, suppository, fumigation
 The second kind of folkloric treatment is
applied for psychological diseases. This method is
called moral therapies and in this method, the
power of suggestion is used. The therapies with
suggestion (Psychotherapy) have also been used
since ancient ages.
Psychotherapy was a way of therapy in ancient
Mesopotamia and in ancient Rome. Thus, priest-
physicians of Mesopotamia collected drugs in the
moon-light, because the moon is the God of
health. The priest-physicians of Egypt usually
used drugs together with prayers .
 Primitive therapeutical forms gathered from
people are useful examples from the point of
telling the truths people. Moreover, the
primitive characteristics or true sides of this
knowledge are compared with modern
medicine and so, some results are obtained.
 
 Today, the investigations with respect to medical
history have generally possess a classical
appearance.
That is, a medical historian must not only
classify the events in the past, but also he must
compare modern medical knowledge of today
with the studies with regard to the past and
then he must comment about the future.
As it is seen that the medical history is a very
broad field and it has a great emphasis from the
point of various causes.
 
PRIMITIVE MEDICINE
It is known that the ages before the invention of
writing are called as prehistoric periods. But the
earliest documents on medical history, the
Egyptian papyri, carry the history back only
about four thousand years.
Nevertheless, there are methods which allow
us at least a notion of what was going on during
the millions of years before the invention of
writing. The medical historian can study teeth
and bones (often fossilized), mummies, and
prehistoric works of art with the help of
methods of the prehistorian and the
 He can also take account of the immunological
behaviour of infectious diseases, which gives some
idea of their age and or­igin. The science dealing with
this paleontologic and prehistoric evidence of
disease is called paleopathology. One of the richest
document of paleopathology is the materials of
bone.
Moreover, the methods of the treatment, the forms
of diseases and drugs in those ages are also observed
in some primitive tribes, today and some knowledge
are obtained from these tribes about the medicine of
prehistoric period. For example, some primitive
drugs are also used in certain primitive tribes,
 Fossilized bacteria similar to our present-day
micrococci can be found in geological forma­
tions that are 500.000.000 years old. Whether
these bacteria were pathogenic is, of course, im­
possible to decide.
 Charles Nicolle suggested that the oldest
pathogenic bacteria were of the gram-positive type
with spores. He regarded viruses as the youngest
of the pathogenic organisms because of their
advanced parasitism and specialization .
 Fossil shells of 350.000.000 years ago reveal that
parasitism and traumatism were disturb­ing living
animal forms at that early date. The oilments of the
great reptiles of 200.000.000 years ago can be
established from the evidence of surviving bones.
The dinosaurs, mososaurs and crocodiles of the
period frequently experienced fractures and many
of these fractures healed more or less well. These
reptiles show frequent signs of chronic arthritis, one
the main problems of present-day medical practice.
 Sixty million years ago, the mammals became
dominant. The pathology of fossil mammals is
essentially the same as that observed in the big
reptiles; here again are found fractures, oste­
oarthritis, infectious bone diseases, tumours etc.
 
 
 The examination of the tissues of mummies
enlarges our horizons considerably and makes
strikingly clear how little can be discovered about
the pathology of the past through the study of
bones alone.

In these mummies highly developed

arteriosclerosis has been determined, as well as
pneumonia, pleurisy, kidney stones, gallstones and
appendicitis. Skin lesions in some mummies
suggest smallpox (1100 B.C).
Moreover, primitive men believed that the factors
of disease such as demons, evil spirits were hidden
in the head of man who went mad as a results of
some fear.
They tried to take out harmful things from the
holes in the skull that were opened with sharp
pebbles. These opera­tions are called trepanation
in the medical history. These were made in
various portions of the skull and were in various
sizes. The great French surgeon and
anthropologist,
 The great French surgeon and
anthropologist,
Paul Broca, who was the first to study the
trephined skulls and the operation techniques
involved, was inclined to derive the practice
primarily from the belief in supernaturalistic
theories of disease.

He felt that primitive man had made these holes

in the skull in order to liberate evil spirits who
might be causing headaches or epilepsy. Because,
 Moreover, the Austrian anthropologist.
 D. Woelfel observed that trepanations were
practiced most widely in areas where weapons
producing skull fractures were used. He felt that the
operation was introduced in order to remove bone
fragments and relieve intracranial pressure in the
case of head wounds.
But, direct knowledge with regard to the diseases
of primitive men and their therapies are
insufficient. So, it is necessary to empha­size on
some indirect methods.
 These findings can be provided by studying the
knowledge of the contemporary savages about the
disease and drug. But, it is true these primitive
societies have remained fundamentally on a Stone
Age level.
These primitive men of today have main­tained
many characteristics of their prehistoric
predecessors in the field of medicine as in oth­er
fields. The rate of change in primitive societies is
markedly slower than in more dynamic
civilizations .
 The medicine man, the family and the friends
of the patients gather round his bed and start a
ceremony which lasts for four days and nights.

The ceremony consists of prayers and magic

formulas, of feathers and turquoise. The medicine
man tries to obtain a kind of anamnesis by
making the patient recall his past and confess
possible offenses against the religious or social
rules of his tribe.
 Then, the guardian spirit or power of the medical
man reveals to him the cause, the prognosis and
the necessary treatment of the disease.

If the Apache has been the victim of a sorcerer,

the medicine man sucks out the small bones
which caused the disease, from the body of the
patient. In other cases, the treatment is simpler.

Drugs are prescribed; the patient is given a

magic amulet; he is forbidden to eat certain
foods that is a taboo.
 Similar ideas concerning the causes of
disease will be found in all primitive
societies-. These can be magico-religious or
supernatural causes.

All primitives will assume that the ma­

jority of diseases are sent by ghosts, spirits,
or gods offended by some taboo violation in
other cases, the disease may be thought to
have been inflicted by a sorcerer, a mortal in
control of su­pernatural forces.
 The supernatural forces bring about disease by
shooting foreign matter into the body of the patient
or by introducing spirits into it.

Other primitives believe in the existence of

several souls in one body and assume that
disease is caused by abduction of one of these
souls from the sufferer. Supernatural beliefs
concerning the cause of disease are spread
among primitives of America and other
countries.
 
 
 It is only logical that diseases caused by
supernatural agencies can be diagnosed only by su­
pernatural techniques.

Therefore, diagnostics in primitive societies,

consist primarily of the ap­plication of one of the
many divination procedures invented by man in
the course of history.
The procedure chosen may be crystal gazing,
bone throwing or a trance entered into by the
medicine man.
Treatment, too, has to be primarily of a
supernatural nature. Invisible disease-producing
foreign bodies have to be sucked out or removed
by dry cupping.

These mechanical producers have to be

reinforced by magic spells or by the application of
medicines, internal or external, which are thought
to be effective because of their magical power.
Some of these drugs are also given to patients
and these can produce beneficial effects.
 Yet, there is no doubt that amulets, ritual
mutilations such as circumcision and ritual
painting of the body are all measures de­signed
to prevent disease.

Ritual scarification sometimes includes real

inoculation against smallpox or snakebite.
Clipped nails, cut hair and other separated
parts of the body are also used for such spells . 
 A supernatural orientation is the
fundamental trait of primitive medicine and is
the main ground for the basic differences
between the primitive medical approach and
modern scientific methods. The results of
supernaturalists beliefs can be observed in all
branches of medicine.
 Some of the primitive tribes open the bodies
regularly in order to detect witchcraft principles,
but their anatomical knowledge is insufficient.

Psychological treatment of the disease is the

most important characteristic of primitive
medicine. Thus, in this therapy, primitive men
want to find both materialist and religious and
magic effects in the drugs . 
MEDICINE OF ANCIENT
CIVILIZATIONS

In an few places favoured by nature, in the great

river valleys of the Old World and on the high
plateaus of the New World, tribal groups grew into
empires and developed urban civiliza­tions.
The inhabitants of these empires records as well
as from rich archeological findings. At this point
history proper begins.
 Medical understanding of the ancient
civilizations depends on some basic
characteristics. The causes and the therapies of
the diseases showed the similarities in these
civilizations.

But, some of them also had various

characteristics. These civilizations believed in
polytheistic relig­ion, so, the concepts of disease
and treatment showed certain methods. The
reasons of the diseases belonging to these
civilizations are as follows:
 
1)The Religious Causes
The hatred of Gods, the sins of patients are
among them.

2)The Supernatural Causes

Some objects such as demons, evil spirits can be
shown as examples.

3)The Internal and External Effects

a)The internal effects
According to the beliefs of ancient people, five
elements were present in nature. These were
wood, fire, earth, mineral, water.

Humors such as blood, phlegm, yellow bile,

black bile were also found in the body of men
and the spoiling of these humors, or rather, their
imbalance caused disease. This theory is called
humoral pathology, nowadays.
 Moreover, according to ancient poeple,
pneuma was a matter that was found in the air,
but couldn't be seen and this de­scription
resembles very much oxygene of today.

If pneuma spread into the lungs, heart and

consequently all the body was damaged from
the respiration, the putrefaction of blood was
seen and the disease occurred.
b)The external effects
Besides, natural effects such as winds,
moisture, thunder, the changes of climate,
seasons were among the external causes.

The system of thought in the period of

ancient civilizations began to reach for a
scientific form with Hippocrates (460-377 B.C),
the founder of the scientific medicine in ancient
Greece and afterwards, in the period of
Renaissance, the scientific understanding
reached a high level and new things were
discovered.
 The methods of treatment in the ancient
ages developed as in parallel to the causes of ill­
nesses. These primitive causes also held the
methods of the treatment in a primitive level
for a long time.
Religious treatment with prayer, mystical
treatments with amulet and magic and drug
therapy were highly used.
Furthermore, special therapeutic forms were
also present In ancient India, the patient was
bitten by snakes. The teeth of the snakes were
extracted and their poisons were taken out.
 So, these types of snakes were harmless.
This therapy was called, shock. Moreover, the
therapy of acupuncture can be given for the
treatment in several ancient civilizations.

In addition to these, the physical methods

had empiric characteristics. These kinds of
therapeutic methods became the main
grounds of scientific Hippocratic
medicine (460-377 B.C) in ancient Greek.

 
 The education of medicine was applied in the
temples of health that had poltheistic religion.
The medical lectures were taught by the priest
physicians in these foundations .

Moreover, the preparation of primitive medicine

was also seen in the ancient medicine. We observe
this application from written sources belonged to
that period.
Today, some of these kinds of drugs are also
prepared among people and these have both useful
and harmful charac­teristics.
 Therefore, to investigate useful and harmful effects
of these medicines with scientific methods is very
necessary. We know that folklore is a science of
daily life and culture of people.

Folkloric medicine also has some primitive

treatments and false beliefs as in other profes­sions
and they are the folklore of medical profession.
Folkloric medicine combines history and natural
sciences. Therefore, a person who investigates
medical folklore, must have both biolog­ical and
histological knowledge.
 A scientist must investigate the scientific
characteristics of the method of a treatment among
people and its source. A person who deals with
folklore and medical history must be both medical
man and historian.

There are two different kinds of folk­loric

treatments of various disorders among people in
Turkey. One of them is the organic treat­ment and in
these therapies, various drugs are used in the form
of primitive prescriptions.
 Pharmacological effects of some drugs are also
accepted in modem medicine. Thus, the scien­tific
validity of some primitive information that has
been applied since ancient ages, is proved with
the scientific investigations.

But, some primitive methods haven't

pharmacological ef­fects. So, these kinds of
therapies are harmful for patients.
 Today, some formulas with respect to drugs are
given to people in attarshops in some cities of
Turkey (Istanbul, Bursa etc) and these primitive
formulas are prepared in the form of some
pharmaceutical preparations such as pill, infusion,
powder, suppository, fumigation and ointment.

Second kind of folkloric treat­ments is applied

for psychosomatic diseases. This kind is made
with the way of suggestion.
 The therapies with suggestion (Psychothrapy)
have also been used since ancient ages.
Psychotherapy was a way of therapy in ancient
Mesopotamia and in ancient Rome.

Thus, priest-physicians of Mesopotamia

collected drugs in the moon-light, because the
moon is the God of health. The priest-physicians
of Egypt usually used drugs together with
prayers.
 MESOPOTAMIAN MEDICINE
Mesopotamia was the cradle of the civilization in
the ancient ages (about 500 B.C). Sumerians
founded small cities like confederations. A big
library was founded in Ninova, a fa­mous city of that
period in the period of Asurbanipal and Sardanapal,
in the VII th century B.C.

This library contained 300000 clay tablets and the

newest tablets belonged to the VII th century B.C.
The oldest tablets also remained from the twenty-
second century B.C.
 Ancient Mesopotamians wrote on clay
tablets in that period. These have survived
far better than papy­rus. On the other hand,
Mesopotamian documents are far less
orderly, far more casual, and much shorter
than Egyptian documents.

About 1000 clay tablets are present in

Pennsylvania in America and other tablets are
found in the British museum in England. These
were translated to English by Pennsylvania
University.
 These were the first medical books of history.
70000 clay tablets are also found in Istanbul
Archeological Museum.
Now, we generally get knowl­edge from these
tablets about medicine of Mesopotamia and we
can list these medical texts as follows .
1)Medical texts on tablets related to general
knowledge, such as religious, literary, legal and
letters.

2)The tablets related to diseases and treaunent, that

is, general medicine or surgery.

3)The tablets written for education.

4)Prescriptions.
We learn from these that the medicine of ancient
Mesopotamia is an animistic medicine. Because
of religious reasons, the priest-
physicians of Mesopotamia couldn't
dissect the body of man and they had a
poor knowledge of anatomy.
However, in these texts, a lot of diseases were
recorded. However in these texts, a lot of diseases
were recorded. To Mesopotamian peo­ple, disease
settled down in the body from upstairs to
downstairs, from head to foot. The center of
psychiatric diseases also was in the skull.
 On these medical tablets, local diseases related
to the organs of eye, ear, throat, heart, stomach,
intestines and genital organs, the diseases of skin
and the nervous system, tuberculosis, jaundice and
various epidemic diseases were recorded.
Mesopotamians knew vthat jaundice was a
disease of the liver. Moreover, they had ideas
about the diseases of the eye and they knew that
these diseases could be corrected with lenses.
Thus, they could read the writings on very small
tablets with these lenses (2).
In Mesopotamia, the causes of the diseases
depended on religious and mystical aspects. These
were the hatred of Gods and the demons. In those
ages, the demos that entered the body and weren't
seen by the eye, were accepted as causes of
disease. They even believed that every demon
made a disease. Thus, seven of these demons were
very famous and they caused great fear. The main
aim of the treatment was these demons to drive out
from the body. In those days, another cause of
disease was hatred of the Gods (3).
In Mesopotamia, the basis of treatment
depended on both certain days and prayers and
magic, that is, the treatment of suggestion.
Mesopotamian doctors made use of many days
in addition to metaphysical means such as
magic and amulet.The diseases that are treated
with magic are characteristically psychiatric
illnesses such as epilepsy, hysteria. The
treatment s of magic,water and fire were
characteristically used.For this reason, the
Water God, Ea, was known as a God of Health
in Mesopotamia.Therofore,Sumerians called
The oldest codex of the world is the
pharmacopoeia of Mesopotamia.
In fact, a medical tablet was found in Nippur 50
years ago and it was deciphered in recent years.
We learn from this tablet which belonged to the
third century. B.C that Sumerians used many
mineral, animal vegetal drugs. It is interesting that
these drugs which were used a thousands of years
ago, were prepared in just the same form as today.
 
The reasons for using these drugs were written in de­
tail on these tablets. In Mesopotamian medicine, the
matters such as wine, beer, simple, grease, olive-oil,
honey, milk, wax and especially water were used in
the preparation of these medi­cines. Drug indications
were almost the same as today. For example,
sulphure was used on scabs, mustard was also used
for irritations. The Mesopotamians knew hellebore,
hyoscyamus, mandrake and opium. This civilization
emphasized the quantitiy of drugs (4).
Priest-physicians gathered the herbs in the light of
the moon, usually at nights and so, they wanted to
make a mystic influence on patients. So, the tradition
of sealing of packets of drugs that are prepared,
began in Mesopotamia to provide psychical effects.
Thus, the sacred words were also found on the
medical tablets in the Islamic world. The sign of the
cross on the pack­ages of drugs in Christian countries
can be given as an example. Today, Rx sign that is
found in the prescriptions, was the symbol of
Marduk, the god of Mesopotamia, and so, it means
besmele in Arabic (5).
Moreover, Mesopotamian physicians used physical
therapeutical ways such as gymnastics and message.
At that time, primitive surgery was also practiced. In
this country, the physician was a very superior
scientific man, but the surgeon was an artisan or
worker who was under his direction. In
Mesopotamia, the physician and pharmacist was the
same person and the union of doctor and pharmacist
continued for many centuries and even until recent
years.
Moreover, there were official or palace physicians
and in addition independent or private physicians in
Mesopotamia. Furthermore, midwifes were
generally women in this antique community and
they were called Şa-Zu. Sa-Zu meant the person
who knew inner parts of the body (6).

This medical knowledge of Mesopotamia reached

many bordering states such as Etis, Phoenician,
İskit, Israel, ancient Persia and this effect continued
for many countries (7).
 
The fortune-telling of liver was used as the
way of diagnosis and this method was also
present in Etis and in Iskits in Anatolia for
long centuries. The liver was considered as
the cen­ter of blood circulation, because it
collected excess blood in it. To the belief of
Mesopotamian people, the lamb symbolised
man, therefore, the patients were sacrificed,
when it was neces­sary.
So, physicians tried to find the diagnosis of
the disease of the patient by examining the
liver of animal which was sacrificed.
Mesopotamian people used models of
artificial livers that were made from burned
brikets and later on, these models were made
of bronze, thus, some models can still be seen
in Western museums all over the world.
Sumerian religion was a cult of nature and it had
polytheistic characteristics as all primitive religions
and so, the medical education was also made in the
temples (8). The virtue of cleanliness was
practiced widely, Admirable sewage systems and
even other water closets, four thousand years of
age, have been dug up by archeologists. The notion
of contagion, isolation of lepers, and regular resting
days, which came into modern culture through the
ancient Jews, seem to have been of Mesopotamian
origin (9).
 
EGYPTIAN MEDICINE

The effects of Mesopotamia were very big on the

civilization of ancient. Egypt. Especially, the
similarities of religions and Gods are very clear.
Because, the sources related to the civili­zation of
ancient Egypt are very many. Besides, a French
man, named Francois Champollion, deciphered an
Egyptian writing, named hieroglyph, thus this
condition played a role in this subject.
As it is known, French soldiers who excavated soil,
found a black stone for building the caste of Julien
in southern Egypt when Napolion attacked Egypt in
1799. Today, the hier­oglyphic text is on the stone
which is found in the British Museum. It is named
Rosetta Stone. Hieroglyphic text was written in the
old and new alphabet. So, these discoveries and the
efforts of Champollion caused appreciation for the
remainders of ancient Egypt. Egpytian medicine
has four periods (1).
1.It shows emperical and bright perspective in the
epoch of ancient empire (2778-2413 B.C).

2.A religious and mystical medicine partly took

place of these empirical knowledge in the epoch of
Middle Empire (2065-1788 B.C).

3.In the period of New Empire and in the last epoch

(1585-333 B.C), ancient Egyptian medicine stopped
using the empirical methods entirely and it showed
the form of mysti­cism.
We know the descriptions of amulets, charms,
spells instead of names of drugs and the methods of
treatment on papyri of these periods and it is said
that the invasion of Hicesos af­fected Middle
Empire. But, the medicine of Egypt again showed a
scientific atmosphere like today in recent years,
especialy after the dynasty of Ptolemee that was
founded in 333 B.C.

Important sources that described the medicine of

ancient Eglypt are as follows:
1.The knowledge that was given by Herodotus

2.Excavations

a)Materials in the rooms of tombs or in the

pyramids: Ancient Egyptians believed that the dead
would again be animated and soul would find the
body. Therefore, all materials which were necessary
for daily life, were buried with the dead body in the
tomb.
 
b)Writings and Pictures in the rooms of the dead:
The life of corpse was drawn on the walls. So,
when the dead was animated, he would remember
his former life.
 
c)Reliefs: Especially, the reliefs that were found on
the walls of temples in the big cities such as Luxor,
Karnak, help us in this way. On these reliefs, some
drugs are encountered. Some prescriptions related
to epoch of Cheops, especially in 3700 B.C can be
seen on a relief of stone in the British Museum.
d)Mummies: The dead were mummified due to the
religious beliefs. Namely, the brain, and other
organs in the abdominal cavities were removed
and the corpse was kept in alcoholic wa­ters and
then, the abdominal cavity was washed with
aromatic substances, it was stuffed with some
drugs and finally, it was sewn up and it was
wrapped with gummed cloth. The internal organs
of the dead were also kept in drugs in different
potteries. For this reason, we know both many
diseases and drugs . of those ages by the studying
of mummified corpses (2, 3).
e)Papyri: Our knowledge of Egyptian medicine is
based on certain papyri. Thus, the books are
written on a material made from stems of the
papyrus plant. Because of the perishable na­ture of
this material only a handful of books concerning
medical practice have been presenved. The kinds
of papyri that are related to medicine are as
follows:
 
1.Surgical Papyrus
This papyrus was found by Edwin Smith in Thebes
in 1862. This papyrus is also called the Edwin Smith
Papyrus and it is dated from about 1600 B.C. Now,
the Newyork Historical Socitey has it. On this
papyrus, the case approach is as follows:

1)The provisory diagnosis.

2)Instructions on how to examine the patient and

the diagnostic signs to be looked for.

3)The di­agnosis and prognosis ol the case.

4)An indication of the necessary therapeutic
measures such as manipulation, drugs and magic
formulas or prayers. Moreover, this papyrus gives
some ana­tomical knowledge about 40 surgical
diseases from head to feet. On this papyrus,
stitching, splints and the use of the fire drill are
mentioned. A high level of clinical observation is re­
vealed in the descriptions of such phenomena as
the feeble pulse, palsy and deafness resulting from
head injuries.
2.Kahun Papyrus
'The oldest known papyrus, the so called the
Kahun Papyrus deals with gnecology and vet­
erinary medicine. This papyrus is dated from
about 2000 B.C and was found in Kahun in
1893.
3.Ebers Papyrus
It is a kind of medical textbook. The Ebers Papyrus
was found by George Ebers, a German Egyptologist,
in Thebes in 1862. It is an encyclopaedic text of
epoch of Middle Empire. The original papyrus is
dated from 1550 B.C. Now, it is in the library of
Leibzig University. Its fac­simile edition together
with its English translation were published in 1873.
This papyrus gives the diagnosis and treatment of
approximately 47 diseases.
We have learned the names of 700 vegetal, animal
and mineral drugs that were used in those ages
with the pharmaceutical forms of those drugs and
Loret published a complete list related to these.
Medical plants were often cultivated by priest-
physicians in the gardens near the temples and they
were gathered in the moon-light because they gave
psychological effects. For the same reason, some
religious names were given to these plants. This
papyrus begins with three incantations to be used
in giving remedies or Loosening bandages. There
follow books on internal diseases, eye diseases,
skin diseases; diseases of the extremities,
miscellaneous diseases; and women's disesases. An
eight book deals with anatomy and physiology, and
the ninth and last book is devoted to sur­gery.
The pathological conditions described on the
papyrus, such as rheumatism and schistoso­miasis,
have also been revealed to some extent in the
examination of the mummies of that pe­riod. A
condition resembling diabetes is described. A
leading role is played by the different diseases
caused by worms, hookworm, filaria, taenia and
ascaris. This may explain why the Egyptians
interpreted so many diseases by means of a theory
or invasion of worms.
4.Berlin Papyrus
The Berlin Papyrus is dated about 1300 B.C. This
papyrus showed both the epoch of the Middle
Empire and the epoch of the New Eprime and it
was found in the temple of Imhoted and now, it is
in the Berlin State Museum. Approximately 170
prescriptions are presented in the part of treatment
on the papyrus.
 
5.London Papyrus
This papyrus is in the British Museum in London,
now, and it is dated from 1350 B.C.
6.Hearst Papyrus
This papyrus is in the library of California
University, now. and so, they were used in
miscellaneous pharmaceutical forms. For
extample, inhalation, gargle, plaster, cataplasm,
collyri- um, essence, suppository were used. In
the preparing of these drugs, water, wine,
vinegaer, beer, olive-oil, milk, urine of man were
used. Useful compounds which were dissolved in
these solutions, were strained through a cloth, and
then, it was sweetened with honey. Daily doses
were given twice every twenty four hours.
The temples were made for Gods in various cities
and those temples resembled the school of
medicine. Oziris, Isis and Thoth were accepted as
the form of Christian trinity much later than
ancient ages. It is also seen that Imhotep was found
among the Gods of Heath and Aesculape
corresponded to this God. Imhotep is a historical
figure, Vizier of Pharaoh who lived about 2900
B.C.
He is credited with many accomplishments in many
fields, and one of his activities seems to have been
that of a successful physician. He is thus one of the
first medi­cal men whose name is on record and, like
the later Asclepius, he rose from the role hero to be­
come the God of medicine. His statues were in the
from of a young Egyptian priest. He read open
papyrus on his knees (4).

The reasons of disease in ancient Egypt are as

follows:

 
 
1.The hatred of Gods or the demons that entered die
body, are the reasons of diseases in ancient Egypt as
in Mesopotamia.

2.Ancient Egypt recognized many parasitic

diseases. For this reason, many diseases were
symbolized with an animal and these symbols were
accepted as Gods.

3.The remainders of food that were accumulated in

some parts of the body were often shown as the
reasons of diseases in ancient Egypt.
4.Moreover, ancient Egyptian priest-physicians
also accepted body liquids, named humor as the
causes of diseases. This condition is known as
humoral pathology, nowadays. For this reason,
purgatives, enemas, emetics, sweating and blood-
letting, the cauterization, cupping, message and to
make one sweat by wrapping in clathes sacked in
hot water, were used in the treatment, because
physicians wanted to get the putrified humors out
of the body. Besides, natural effects such as winds,
thunder, the change of climate were among causes
of disesases (5)
5.Pneuma-pathology: According to ancient
Egyptians, Pneuma was a matter that was found in
the air, couldn’t be seen and this description
resembles very much the oxygene of today. If
pneuma spread in the lungs, heart and all the body
and it spoiled the respira­tion, the purification of
blood and the disease occurs.
 
Religious and mystical thoughts were dominant in
the treatment of that period. Sometimes, various
drugs were given to the patients. Drug thepary
showed the emprical characteristics of ancient
Egyptian medicine.
The diagnosis of the disease was made with the
methods such as palpation, the examination of
urine. Ancient Egyptians hadn't any knowledge
about anatomy and physiology. They couldn't
dissect the human body because of their religious
beliefs. The Egyptians didn't know nerves, some
organs, urine, tendons and kidneys. But, they knew
the pulse.
Three types of healing personnel are mentioned in
Egyptian documents;physicians,exor­cists and
"priests in Sekhmet,who were regarded as surgeons
or as specialists in feeling the pulse and treating
diseases of the vessels.Most is known, of course,
about the court physicians, who were particularly
honored and organized in a rigid hierarchy along
with officials and priests.Moreover, the education of
Egyptians was in the form of Master-apprentice.The
stu­dent who began the education with the religious
ceremony and by taking an oath,learned prac­tical
and theoretical knowledge (6).
INDIAN MEDICINE
 
The peninsula of India that was the area of
settlement of states on India and Pakistan, to­day,
had the most excellent civilization, even in the
most ancient ages of history (1).
The sources that give the medical knowledge of
ancient India are sacred books and medical
manuscripts. Moreover, social communities were
divided into stable classes, namely Casds, under the
effect of Brahmanism.
Ancient Indian civilization is the same as today,
because these stable social casds which have
continued for centuries, transferred all kinds of
knowledge from generation to generation with a
great care. Information concerning the medicine of
the Vedic period is derived mainly from Vedas, the
four holy Sanskrit books of the Indians.
Two of four sacred books that were written in
Sanksrit which were used by religious men, had the
portions related to medicine, because priests were
physicians in ancient India at the same time. Rig
Veda (about 1500 B.C) dealts with magic and
spells, that is, mystical treatment, but Ayur Veda
(about 700 B.C) explains various drugs. Likewise,
there were some medical manuscripts that
explained us the medicine of India; the most
famous one of these books that was written in
Sanskrit, was Susruta.
 
This work that belonged to epoch of Buddha (622-
542 B.C), contains six volumes:

1)Surgical tools.

2) The methods of the treatment of diseases.

3) Anatomy.

4) Treatment of internal diseases.

5) Poisons and antidotes.

6) Ear and eye diseases. Meanwhile, 700 drugs
were recorded in 37 sections of Susruta. Susruta
mentions the .following fundamen­tal surgical
techniques: excision, incision, scarification,
punction, probing, extraction, squeez­ing, and
sewing (and heads were used as clamps in
suturing).
The same authority speaks of no less than 121
surgical instruments, including the magnet for the
removal of metallic bodies and the rectal speculum.
Hindu surgeons practiced chemosurgery, treating
tumors with arsenic oint­ments, as well as by
excision. Their performance in laparotomy, stone
operations, and the couching of cataracts were
remarkable. The greatest accomplishments of the
Hindus lay in the fields of plastic surgery, where
they practiced otoplasty and rhinoplasty. Charaka,
the sum­mary of Susruta belongs to the first century
A.D. (2, 3).
Hindu medicine also effected the Islamic world
and several Hindu books were translated into
Arabic. Moreover, although there were other
works related to Hindu medicine, these books
belonged to later epochs. The last source that gave
us the knowledge about the medicine of ancient
India, is Kitab al -Saydala that was written by Ebu
Reyhan Biruni (973-1048). Biruni was an Islamic
physician (4).
 
Disease was generally caused by demons that were
found in the body of the patients and affected the
patients and there was a great similarity between
this belief and the demons of Mesopotamia that
caused disease. Many of these diseases were
psychological and pediatric diseases. The spoiling
and body liquids were psychological and pediatric
diseases. The spoiling and body liquids were the
other causes of diseases.
Earth, air, water, fire and ether were accept­ed as the
first elements of the universe in Hindu medicine and
contrary to these, it was believed that that necessary
elements such as spiritual love, bile, phlegm and
blood were present in the body. The proportions of
these elements changed with the seasons and if this
change became in excessive proportions, the
diseases occurred. Moreover, the methods of
suggestion and the drugs were used in the treatment
of patients in Hindu medicine.
Moreover, the patient was bit­ten by snakes. The
teeth of the snakes were extracted and their poisons
were taken out So, these types of snakes were
harmles. This therapy was called chock. This
therapy spread exten­sively in ancient India.
Physicians gave the drugs to the patients externally
and internally as today; they used various
preparations such as tincture, syrup, pommade and
suppository (5, 6). Teaching was in the form of
master-apprentice in ancient India (7).
CHINESE MEDICINE

Ancient China is one of the most civilized societies

of ancient Ages. Our knowledge about Chinese
depends on two sources:

1.Mythology-Myths

2.Old medical texts

 
Wang Shu Ho is a very important book about this
subject. This work that was translated by
Reshiduddin of Hemedan, a famous physician and
vizier, by the order of Gazan Mahmud Han, King of
Moghol, from Chinese into the Persian language,
was completed under the rule of Olcayto
Hudabende, Gazan Han's Son, in 1313 and it was
called Tansukname-i ilhani. An il­lustrated and
original work is in the library of Amasya, today.
The causes of diseases were re­ligious reasons and
internal and external effects.
External effects were seasons, winds, pneuma.
Internal effects were pneuma-pathology and
humoural pathology. Moreover, to the Chinese
people, there were two principles that were the
causes of disease from the point of religion. Yang
was a positive and dominant element and it
represented the sun, life, light, dryness, heat and
strength. Yin was negative and a female element and
it ropresented the moon, death, mois­ture, coldness
and weakness. The balance between these two
principles produced health and imbalance produced
disease and finally death (1).
The control of pulsation was accepted as the
diagnosis of disease. Therefore, Chinese peo­ple
emphasized the examination of pulse and even,
they established two hundred kinds of pul­sation.
Furthermore, diagnosis was based on inspection of
the tongue. They described thirty- seven different
shades of the tongue. Diabetes, smallpox,
dysentery, measles and cholera are well described
(2).
 
Chinese people made use of various drugs as well
as acupuncture and massage in the treat­ments of
diseases. Shenn Nung (about 2700 B.C) who was a
mythological person like an em- poror, wrote a
book, in which there wre three hundred sixty five
drugs. This work was pub­lished many times in later
centuries. This book had a pharmacological
characteristics. It contained the knowledge about
many drugs such as opium, rhubarb, iron, arsenic,
sulphur, ephedrine, chaulmoogra oil, camphor and
cod-liver oil.
Hua-Tu (115-205 BC.), a surgeon of China, used
hashish as a narcotic drug. There were different
beliefs of Chinese people about vegetal drugs. For
example, the plants with red flowers ceased
bleeding, the flowers in yellow colour ceased
jaundice.
 
Furthermore, the first Materia Medica was printed
in the era of the Tang dynasty (618-907 A.D). The
first official pharmacy was opened in China in
1076. The first pharmacopeia was also published in
982-992 A.D.
Moreover, the inoculation of smallpox,
acupuncture and moxa were other therapeutical
methods. The technique of acupuncture with long
needles is based on the idea that the body is full of
canal-like tubes, a natural idea to the Chinese
since their agriculture was based on irriga­tion. The
acupuncture theory has appeared rediodically in
Western medicine during the last three centuries.
The practice of smallpox inoculation was
probably imported from India. Moxa, in which the
patient is burned with cones of dried herbs, has
not appealed to European practi­tioners or patients.
Chinese people were related to both the people of
Asia Major and the people of Persia, Rome,
Byzantium, Moslem and Seljuk from the point of
political views.
 
JAPANESE MEDICINE
 
Japanese took ower Chinese medicine together
with Chinese culture in the ninty century. A.D.
During the sixteenth century, Probably under the
stimulus of foreign contact, they devel­oped a more
direct clinical approach and a greater reliance on
the healing forces of nature. Nagata Tokuhan,
known as the Japanase Hippocrates, played an
important part in these devel­opments.
 
Under Western influence, the Japanase made great
progress in surgery in the seven- teenty century,
and in obstetrics and anatomy in the eighteenty
century. In the second half of the nineteenth
century, they were able to assimilate Western
medicine as a whole with great ease and skill (3).
MEDICINE IN THE ANCIENT
CIVILIZATIONS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH
AMERICA
Information concerning the ancient civilizations of
Central and South America is even less definitive
than on the ancient civilfzations of the Old World.
Information on these civilizations must be drawn
mainly from the Spanish chroniclers and their
Indian pupils. The Mayan hiero­glyphs and the
Peruvian quipus have not been deciphered, and the
Mexican Aztecs' pictograph- ic codices can be
interpreted only to a limited degree.
The Spanish conquerors were full of praise for the
medicine of the conquered. Cortez, for instance,
wrote that European physicians were not needed in
the new country. This compliment for Aztec
medicine is a poor reflection on sixteenth century
European medicine. The king of Spain dispatched
his own body physi­cian, Hernandez, to Mexico in
order to study the medicine of the Aztecs.
Hernandez spent sev­en years in such studies.
Unfortunately only a part of his results has been
preserved (1).
Mexican medicine, like that of Egypt and
Mesopotamia, centered round religion. The king was
priest as well as political head. There were gods of
disease and of healing. The concepts of sin as a
cause of disease, and confeksion as a treatment of it,
were highly developed. Astrology was used in the
diagnosis of disease, and sorcery was fought with
amulets and in­cantations. But the concept of disease-
bringing winds, originally entirely religious (the
wind gods bringing disease), opened the door for
more rational developments. The existence of a
certain empricism is also evidenced in the numerous
disease names.
Most impressive is the knowledge of and the
interest in natural history in ancient Mexico. The
Aztecs knew of twelve hundred medicinal plants,
their knowledge being particularly rich in the field
of narcotics. The Aztec king had his own botanical
garden, filled primarily with medicinal plants.
On the other hand, it is remarkable that there is no
evidence of any high grade of anatomi­cal
knowledge in ancient Mexico, in spite of the fact
that human sacrifice offered rich opportu­nities for
observing human anatomy. Surgery seems to have
been better developed than in most primitive
societies. The Mexicans practiced suture with hair,
embryotomy, and other op­erations. Fumigation,
baths, bloodletting, diet, and other physical methods
were widely used.
(2)
There is evidence of a great deal of specialization
in Mexican medicine. In addition to gen­eral
practitioners, there were diviners, surgeons,
phelebotomists, pharmacist and physicians
specializing in various diseases. At least some of
the specialties were open to women practi­tioners.
In general the specialization appears to have
stemmed from a survival of primitive practices
rather than from technical advances. The Mexican
hospitals represented an important advance in the
field of medical care.
The ancient Peruvian civilization, of which the
Inca Empire was only a relatively recent offshoot,
offers many parallels with Mexico and the ancient
cultures of the Near East. Here surgery was
obviously very highly developed; yet no written
record exists to verify the perfor­mance of such
extensive operations as thephining and
amputations. Gods and sorcerers were regarded as
disease-causing agents, and confessions and
exorcisms were thought of as appro­priate
countermeasures.
The concept of disaese-bringing winds was
developed into an insight into the seasonal
occurrence of disaese. The ancient Peruvians not
only domesticated one of the most important crops
on earth, the potato, but also contributed such
valuable substances as cocaine and Peruvian balm
to our pharmacopeia.
The most spectacular accomplishments of the
ancient Peruvians undoubtedly lay in the field
surgery. The Peruvians were able to carry out
such difficult operations as trepanation, am­
putation, and the excision of tumors. Even
prostheses were known. As in other parts of
South America and in the Old World, the heads of
ants were used as clamps in sutures. Our informa­
tion on Peruvian surgery stems chiefly from their
pottery. Peruvian pottery of the Chimu peri­od
deserves to be counted among the greatest works
of art of all times.
It is fortunate for medi­cal historians that Peruvian
artists exhibited a somewhat morbid inclination to
represent disease in their pottery. This pottery shows
surgical operations and the consequences of ritual
and judiciary mutilations. It gives a clear picture of
the revages following uta, the leishmania­sis
resulting from infection by local parasitic
organisms. It also depicts the dangerous local
Rickettsia disease, called verruga peruana or
Carrion's disease. For a while it was hotly debated
whether some of the vessels portrayed cases of
syphilis or leprosy. Most students of the prob­lem
have now settled on leishmaniases (3).
It was natural that the totalitarian Inca state, which
left nothing to accident, should have had to its
credit special accomplishments in the field of
ceremony, Citua, under the leadership of the lnca,
provided an occasion for a thorough cleaning of
all homes. Provision was made for the appropriate
upkeep and employment of the aged and crippled,
and marriage of the latter was restricted.
Alcoholism and drug addiction were energetically
fought.
MEDICINE IN ANCIENT ISRAEL

Israel's medicine in the ancient ages is pointed out

in this chapter. Some traditions and the sacred
book of this country (Bible), give some knowledge
ancient Israel's medicine. Thus, Mesopotamian
medicine effected on this country’s medicine (1).
 
Medicine showed a psychological aand animistic
character in this civilization. But, in time, empiric
therapeutical forms we_e applied.

Some causes of the diseases such as the

punishment of God, the change of humours in the
organism, namely humoral pathology, the change
of climate, the hatred of demons were found in
this civilization (2).
Ancient physicians in Israel knew some diseases.
For example, diphtheria was the most dangerous
disease. This disease was called with the names such
as askara, seninke, cynanche, squinantia. Lentil was
used in the treatment of this disease. Moreover,
prayer was another heal­ing method. Jaundice,
dropsy and intestinal worms were known in this
country. Mastix, cinna­mon, pepper and ginger were
used for the odors of mouth..
In ancient Israel, the method of hol­lowing out
was used in the treatment of the tooth decay.
Ancient physicians of Israel also used gargle in
the treatment of tonsillitis and laryngitis (3,4).

 Israel physicians used prayer, drugs and amulets

in the treatment of the diseases. Moreover, in this
country, priest-physicians treated patients (5).
MEDICINE IN ANCIENT PERSIA

We have little knowledge about the medicine of

ancient Persia. Because, Persian culture and
science began to develop with the founding of the
Med Empire in the ninth century. B.C, there are
very few sources on this subject. According to
Zend Avesta, a single source, ancient Persian
medicine was affected by Mesopotamia and there
was an animistic medicine here as well as in other
ancient nations (1).
A person who cured three patients, could practice
medicine. The Persian medical school was a
continuation of Athens, Antiochia and Alexandria, so
that Moslems got in touch with the medicine and
culture of ancient Greece. According to Zend Avesta,
we see three kinds of phy­sicians as the physician of
knife, physician of herb and physician of sacred
word, that is, sur­geon, physician and psychiatrist and
we understand that vegetal drugs were important in
an­cient Persia.
 
Many ways of mental therapy were seen in this
civilization. In addition to these, about 2000 kinds
of herbs were used in the treatment (2)

It is seen that ancient Greece affected all these

areas when Nestorians came there in the fifth
century A.D. Afterwards, Islamic civilization that
began in the seventh century, dominat­ed all areas
as belief, culture and scince in a short time (3,4).