Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing

Chapter Contents
 What is Manufacturing?

 Materials in Manufacturing

 Manufacturing Processes

 Production Systems

 Trends in Manufacturing
What is Manufacturing?
 The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words,
manus (hand) and factus (make) the combination means
made by hand. The English word manufacture is several
centries old, and “ made by hand” accurately described the
manual methods used when the word was first coined.
Most modern manufacturing is accomplished by
automated and compter controlled machinery.
The differences among primary, secondary,
and tertiary industries
 Primary industries cultivate and exploit natural resources,
such as agriculture and mining.
 Secondary industries take the outputs of the primary
industries and convert them into consumer and capital
goods. Manufacturing is the principal activity in this
category, but construction and power utilities are also
included.
 Tertiary industries constitute the service sector of the
economy.
Product representing various technologies most of which affect nearly everyone

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Agriculture Aerospace Banking

Forestry Construction Hotel
Fishing Electronics Restaurant
Livestock Food Processing Insurance

Quarries Communications
Mining Beverages Entertainment
Petroleum Paper Medical
Computer
Capital good and example
 Capital goods are those purchased by companies to
produce goods and provide services.
 Examples of capital goods include aircraft, computers
communication equipment etc.
 Consumer goods
 Consumer goods are products purchased directly by consumers
such as cars, personal computers ,TVs , tires and tennis rackets.
Manufacturing capability
 Manufacturing capability refers to the technical and
physical limitations of a manufacturing firm and each of
its plants. Several dimensions of this capability can be
identified.
1) Technological processing capability

2) Physical size and weight of product and

3) Production capacity
The three basic categories of materials
 The three basic categories of materials are
1) Metal
2) Ceramics and
3) Polymers
The difference between a process layout and
product layout in a production facility
 The individual components of these large products are
often made in factories in which the equipment is arranged
according to function or type. This arrangement is called a
process layout.

 The workstations and equipment are designed specifically

for the product to maximize efficiency . The layout is
called a product layout.
Manufacturing Engineering
 The manufacturing engineering department is responsible
for planning the manufacturing processes deciding what
processes should be used to make the parts and assemble
the products. This department is also involved in designing
and ordering the machine tools and other equipment used
by the operating departments to accomplish processing and
assembly .
Production planning and control
 This department is responsible for solving the logistics
problem in manufacturing ordering materials and
purchased parts, scheduling production, and making sure
that the operating departments have the necessary capacity
to meet the production schedules.
Quality control
 Production high quality products should be a top priority of
any manufacturing firm in today’s competitive
environment. It means designing and building products that
conform to specifications and satisfy or exceed customer
expectations. Much of this effort is the responsibility of QC
department.
Compare of product variety and production
quantity
Dimensions surfaces and their Measurement
Dimensions
 Dimensions are the linear or angular sizes of a component
specified on the part drawing. Dimensions are important because
they determine how well the components of a product fit together
during assembly.

Tolerance
 Instead a limited variation is allowed from the dimensions, and
that allowable variation is called a tolerance.
Difference between a bilateral tolerance and a
unilateral tolerance
 A bilateral tolerance allows variation is permitted in both
positive and negative directions from the nominal dimensions,
whereas a unilateral tolerance is one in which the variation from
the nominal dimension to be either positive or negative but not
both.
Accuracy in Measurement
 Measurement is a procedure in which an unknown quantity is
compared with a known standard, using an accepted and
consistent system of units. Two systems of units have evolved
in the world
1) The U.S customary system and

2) The international system of units more popularly known as the

metric system

 Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value agrees with

the true value of the quantity of interest.
Precision in Measurement
 Precision is the degree of repeatability in the measurement
process. Good precision means that random errors in the
measurement procedure are minimized.
 Precision gage blocks are the standards against which other
dimensional measuring instrument and gages are compared.
The highest grade master laboratory standard is made to a
tolerance .
 A surface plate is a large solid block whose top surfaces is
finished to a flat plane. Most surfaces plates today are made
of granite.
Graduated Measuring Devices
 Graduated measuring devices include a set of markings on a
linear or angular scale to which the object’s feature of interest can
be compared for measurement.
 Non graduated measuring devices process no much scale and are
used to make comparisons between dimensions or to transfer a
dimension for measurement by a graduated device. The most
basic of the graduated devices is the rule.
 Calipers are available in either non graduated or graduated styles.
A non graduated caliper consists of two legs joined by a hinge
mechanism.
Comparative Instruments
Mechanical Gages and Electronic Gages
Fixed Gages
Snap Gage
Plug gage
 Fundamentals of Metal Forming
 Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing
processes in which plastic which plastic deformation is used to
change the shape of metal work pieces.

 Deformation results from the use of a tool usually called a die

in metal forming, which applies stresses that exceed the yield
strength of the metal. The metal therefore deforms to take a
shape determined by the geometry of the die.

 Metal forming dominates the class of shaping operations

identified in the deformation processes.
Material behavior in metal Forming
δ=K  
Where, K= the strength coefficient M pa ( lb / )
n= Strain hardening exponent
δ= Stress  
Ўƒ=K /1+n
ε= Strain
Ўƒ= Average flow stress, MPa( lb / )
Flow stress
Yƒ= K ε˚=V/h
Where, Yƒ= flow stress MPa( lb / )
ε˚= true strain rate, (m/s/m) , (in/sec/in)
h= instantaneous height of the work piece being
deformed , (m), (in)
Bulk Deformation Processes in
metal working
The commercial and technological importance of bulk
deformation processes derives from the following:
 When performed as hot working operations, they can achieve
significant change in the shape of the work part.
 When performed as cold working operations, they can be
used not only to shape the product, but also to increase its
strength through strain hardening.
 These processes produce little or no waste as a by product of
the operations are near net shape or net shape processes: they
achieve final product geometry with little or no subsequent
machining.
The four basic bulk deformation processes
a) Rolling
b) Forging
c) Extrusion and
d) Wire and bar drawing
Rolling
Rolling is a deformation processes in which the thickness of
the work is reduced by compressive forces exerted by two
opposing rolls. The rolls rotate as illustrated to pull and
simultaneously squeeze the work between them. The basic
process used to reduce the thickness of a rectangular cross
section. A closely related process is shape rolling in which a
square cross section is formed into a shape such as an I- beam.
Forging
Forging is a deformation process in which the work is
compressed between two dies using either impact or gradual
pressure to from the part.
Extrusion
Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is
forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross
sectional shape. The process can be likened to squeezing
toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube.
Flat rolling and its analysis
d= to-tf  
Where, d= draft (mm), (in)
to= starting thickness, (mm), (in)
tf= final thickness, (mm), (in)
Reduction , True strain , Average flow stress

r = , ε= ln ,Ўƒ= ,
Rollin force,
F= ЎƒwL ,wL = the roll-work contact area, ,
T= 0.5FL , L= contact length (m, in)
Open- Die Forging
ε =ln , where, ho= starting  height of the work,( mm, in)

F= ЎƒA , F= KƒЎƒA , Kƒ= forging shape factor

Kƒ = 1+ , 𝞵= coefficient of friction
D= work part diameter or other dimension
representing contact length (mm, in)
h= work-part height (mm, in)
Analysis of Extrusion
𝚛𝘹= , Where ,𝚛𝘹 = extrusion
  ratio
Ao= cross sectional area of the starting
billet, ,
Af= final cross sectional area of the
extruded section, ,

Ўƒ=
Where, a,b= empirical constants for a given die angle
Typical values, a= 0.8 , b= 1.2 to 1.5

 
Ԑ= ln rx P= ЎƒԐx
P=Ўƒ ln rx Pƒ= Ўƒ
 Wire drawing
r = , where r= area reduction
  in drawing, d= draft
d= Do-Df , Ԑ= ln =
δ= ЎƒԐ , Ўƒ= , δd= Ўƒ(1+)𝟇ln
𝟇= 0.88±0.12D/Lc , D=
Lc= , 𝞵= die work stress Mpa, Lb/
𝞪= die angle
𝟇= factor
 Sheet Metal working
 Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively thin
sheets of metal
 Thickness of sheet metal= 0.4 mm (1/64in) to 6mm (1/4in)
 Thickness of plate stock> 6mm
 Operations usually performed as cold working
 Shearing
 Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges.
 Typically used to cut large sheets into smaller sections for
subsequent operations
Blanking
 It involves cutting of sheet metals along a single step to
separate the piece from the surrounding stock.
 The part that is cut out is the desired product in the
operation and is called the blank.
 Punching
 The punching process forces a steel punch, made of hardened
steel, into and through a work piece.
 The punch diameter determines the size of the hole created in the
work piece.
 Punching is often the cheapest method for creating holes in sheet
metal in medium to high production.
Types of sheet Metal Bending
 V- bending performed with a V- shaped die
 Performed on a press brake
 V- dies are simple and inexpensive
 Edge bending performed with a wiping die
 Pressure pad required
 Dies are more complicated and costly
 Drawing
a) Drawing of cup shaped part
1) Before punch contacts work
b) Near end of stroke
2) Starting blank
3) Drawn
Blanking clearance and force
C=Act  
Where, C= clearance (mm, in)
Ac= clearance allowance
t= stock thickness( mm, in)
Blanking die diameter= Db- 2C
Blanking die diameter= Db
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh+ 2C
Cutting forces, F= StL
Where, S= shear strength of the sheet metal Mpa(lb/)
L= length of the cut edge, (mm,in)
F= 0.7(Ts) t L
Sheet metal Bending
Ab= 2π(R+ Kba t)  
Where, Ab= bend allowance (mm, in)
𝞪 = bend angle (degree)
R= bend radius (mm, in)
t= stock thickness (mm, in)
Kba= factor (R/t<2 , Kba=0.33 and , R/t⪄2, Kba=0.5)
F=
Where, F= bending force
Kbf= factor ( V-bending Kbf=1.33 and Edge bending= 0.33)
Ts= tensile strength of the sheet metal Mpa(lb/)
w= width of part (mm, in)
D= die opening dimension
 Cup drawing
Drawing ratio, DR=  
Where, Db= blank diameter
Dp= punch diameter
Reduction, r=
Drawing force , F= -0.7)
Holding Force, Fh= 0.015Y-(Dp+ 2.2t+ 2R}
Fh= holding force in drawing N(lb)
Y= yield strength Mpa(lb/)
T= starting stock thickness mm,in
Rd= die corner radius, mm,in
Grinding and other abrasive processes
 They can be used on all types  of materials ranging from
soft metals to hardened steels and hard nonmetallic
materials such as ceramics and silicon.

 Some of these processes can produce extremely fine

surface finishes to 0.25(1-

 For certain abrasive process, dimensions can be held to

extremely close tolerances.
Grinding
Types of grinding operation
1. Ruff or precision Grinding
a) Snagging
b) Off-hand
2. Precision Grinding
c) Surface grinding
d) Cylindrical grinding
e) Center less grinding
f) Form and profile grinding
g) Plunge cut grinding
 Form and profile grinding
 Form grinding is a specialized type of cylindrical grinding where
the grinding wheel has the exact shape of the final product. The
grinding wheel does not traverse the work piece.
 Plunge cut grinding

In feed ( Plunge) Grinding is used to grind work pieces which have

projections or shoulders, multiple diameters or other irregular shapes
which preclude the use of through feed grinding.
The five principal parameters of a grinding wheel
1) Abrasive material
2) Grain size
3) Bonding material and
4) Wheel structure

The principal abrasive materials used in grinding

wheels
• High hardness, wear resistance, toughness and, friability are some
of the principal abrasive materials used in grinding wheels
 Inspection and Quality Control
Clearance fit
These types of fits are characterized by the occurrence of a
clearance between the two mating parts. The difference between
the minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft
is called the minimum clearance, the difference between the
maximum size of the hole and the minimum sixe of the shaft is
known as maximum clearance.
Interference Fit
These types of fits the size of the mating parts are per-defined
so that interference between them always occurs. The
tolerance zone of the hole is completely below the tolerance
zone of the shaft.
Transition Fit
These type of fit has its mating parts size limited to allow
either clearance or interference. The tolerance zone of the hole
and the shaft overlaps in case of such fits.
Numerical Control of Machine Tools
Programmable automation in which the mechanical actions of a
machine tool are controlled by a program containing coded
alphanumeric data that represents relative positions between a
work head and a work part.
Axes of NC Machines
Programming Modes
Incremental System
 Program dimensions or positions given from current point
 Disadvantage
- If error made in any location, error automatically carried
over to all following locations
G91 command tells computer and MCU to be incremental mode