POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

LOPEZ, QUEZON BRANCH

HYDRAULICS
2
 CIEN 30143
BSCE 3

ENGR. ANTONIO P. CURVA

PART-TIME INSTRUCTOR 1
I. ORIFICES, WEIRS and TUBES
A. PROPERTIES OF ORIFICE FLOW : FREE-FLOW TYPE

Show general conditions of fluid flow through a standard sharp-edged circular orifice installed
vertically in a wall separating chambers A and B. the difference in elevation between the liquid surface
in chamber A. and the point 2 in the issuing jet is denoted by h. we assume that the chambers are
separately subjected to the pressure p1 and p2 , respectively. As the flow occurs from chamber A to
chamber B it is considered as free or unconfined , hence the pressure at any point in the issuing jet is
the same as that of the surrounding medium which is p2.

The BERNOULLI’S ENERGY EQUATION between point s and 2 , neglect head loses.

3
From this equation the thoeretical velocity of flow through the orifice is obtained as

In SI units : Vt has a dimension of meter per second (m/s); H is in joule per newton (J/N) or meter (m)
of the following fluid.

B. COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY
To correct for the head losses initially neglected , a correction factor known as the coefficient of
velocity and defined

is applied to get the velocity ,

4
C. COEFFICIENT OF CONTRACTION

Where a is the cross-sectional area of the contracta and Ao is the sectional area of the orifice.

D. COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE
the ideal or theoretical discharge is the product of the area of the orifice and the theoretical
velocity,

On the other hand , the real or actual flow is obtained at the issuing jet (vena contracta) and
represented as the product of the area of the contracted section and the actual velocity.

5
As previously defined in chapter 5 under flow measurements , the coefficient of discharge is given as.

Substitute the 3 equations to get

which is easily reducible by the use of 2 equations

E. LOST HEAD AT AN ORIFICE

to determine the loss of energy per unit weight of the fluid mass passing any orifice , we proceed
as follows:

If the flow is ideal V2 = Vt , the theoretical velocity and so E1 = E2 . However for real flow , V2 = Va ,
the actual velocity which will make E1 > E2 , and whose difference gives the head loss under
consideration.
6
For large chamber A , to reduces to :

The above head loss formula may also be reduced to

F. THE THREE ORIFICE COEFFICIENTS

one of the several methods of finding the three coefficients of an orifice is given hereunder:
(i) coefficient of discharge , C :

7
 the value of the discharge coefficient C may be obtained by means of the following experimental
cosiderations:
maintain a constant head h over the orifice and measure the actual flow Qa by collecting the fluid
that flows out of the orifice for a predetermined period of time t,

Where W is the weight (N) of the collected fluid and w is the specific weight (N/m^3) of the fluid
with the use of precision instrument , the diameter of the orifice could be measured and its area
Ao correspondingly computed. The coefficient of discharge C may now be determined as.

Where Ao is in square meter (m^2) and h is in meter (m).

(ii) coefficient of velocity , Cv :
this orifice sufficient is measured by making use of the principle of the projectile in mechanics.
Recall that the rectangular equation of the trajectory of a projectile , air friction neglected, in terms of
the components of the initial velocity Vo is

8
Fig. 6.4 follows the parabolic trajectory as defined by the above equation. If the head h is maintained
constant , the jet will ideally be fixed in space so that the distances x and y of any point on it could
be measured quite precisely. The desired coefficient Cv can then be obtained by eq. 6.12

9
(iii) Coefficient of contraction , Cc :
to measure directly the amount of contraction of the jet issuing from an orifice a caliper is
ordinarily used, if set in a fixed standard , caliper measurements of the contracted section generally
give precise results. The only main problem here is in the exact location of the vena contracta, so an
arbitrary position is predetermined, say ½ Do from the inner wall of the orifice , as previously
suggested.
with the knowledge of the orifice diameter , the coefficient of contraction is thus computed by
eq 6.4

10
 These values are from Hydraulics by H. Smith . Because of the lack of substantiating data these
values should be considered as approximate. To obtain better results when working with square or
rectangular orifices calibration of such should be observed before the tests start.

11
G. THE VELOCITY OF APPROACH
under the assumption made that the velocity V1 is the main velocity at the liquid surface the
each particle at any depth will have a similar velocity, known as the velocity of approach , or Va = V1.
if the upstream area of flow is very large in relation to the area of the jet the velocity of approach
Va may be considered as neglible. This is justified under the condition that the area of flow is equal to,
or greater than , 15 times the area of the issuing jet.

12
Where p1 is measured either by the piezometer or the open manometer shown. Note that the
discharge may also be written as

In which Dp is the diameter of the pipe. With this equation.

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14
H. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES
the formula developed in the foregoing discussion for liquids flowing through orifices are also
applicable to gases provided that the difference in the upstream and down stream pressures p1 and p2
(p1>p2) is not very appreciable. In this case , density variation is neglected and the specific weight w is
taken either under the pressure p1 or p2 or based from the average of p1 and p2.
as (p1-p2) increases , thermodynamics effects of the gas become very essential and the formulas
developed for liquids will give less accurate results.

I. LARGE ORIFICES UNDER LOW HEADS

up o this point , the consideration was mainly focused on orifice flow in which the dimension of
the opening is small in relation to the head h over it. In cases of large orifices under low heads, velocity
variation within the jet’s cross section has a wider range and will have a definite influence on the flow
rate. However , it will be shown that there is only a very slight difference between these two.
the theoretical flow through an elementary rectangular strip of length b and thickness dy is.

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16
J. UNSTEADY FLOW IN ORIFICES : DISCHARGE UNDER FALLING OR RISING HEAD
if in addition to the outflow Qo (at time , t=0) through the orifice in the tank there is a constant
inflow Qi which supplies the tank then the type of flow may be classified as steady or unsteady
depending upon the relative values of Qi and Qo :
(a) The flow is steady if Qi = Qo , that is , when h1 is maintained constant.
(b) The flow is unsteady if Qi ≠ Qo. The liquid surface may rise or drop as to whether Qi is greater or
smaller than Qo at time , t=o. a special case of unsteady flow is attained if the inflow Qi is cut off , that
is when Qi=0.

17
 here we shall investigate the two cases of unsteady flow in orifices namely the special case , Qi =
o and the general case when Qi ≠ Qo. Ordinarily unsteady flow problems require the determination of
the time it takes for the liquid surface to rise or drop from one given elevation to another elevation. The
analysis of each case follows:
CASE 1: when Q1 = 0: the surface drops and the volume decreases or d(Vol)/dt<0.
by definition, the rate of change in the volume of the contained liquid is the outflow Qo
(Qi=0) ,

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CASE 2: when Qi ≠ Qo at time , t=0. under this condition there are two (2) reacted subcases:

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K. PROPERTIES OF ORIFICE FLOW: SUBMERGED TYPE
Show an orifice with a submerged flow , that is the upstream and downstream sides of the
orifice are both below the liquid surface.

From which the theoretical velocity is obtained as

20
 the coefficient of discharge C for sharp-edged submerged orifice are slightly smaller than the
values for the free-flow type. The table below gives the values of C for the submerged orifices of
different shapes based on the experiment of Smith.

21
L. GATES
in engineering practice, the term gate is used to denote an opening in a dam or other
hydraulic structure for the purpose of controlling the passage of water. Gates posses the hydraulic
properties of orifices.

22
 the depths upstream and downstream are denoted as d1 and d2 , respectively and the vertical
dimension of the gate as d. between point A and point B in the contracted section of the stream , we
write the energy equation.

23
 for a rectangular opening of width b, the area of flow at the opening of the gate is b x d , so the
coefficient of contraction is obtained as

M. SHORT TUBES
a short tube is an opening with downstream extensions not sufficiently long to be classified as
pipes. Figure 6.12 shows tow tubes under different conditions of flow. The computation of the flow
rate through such devices follows closely that of the orifice.
a standard shot tube is smooth tube with a sharp internal corner and a length equal to about
2.5 diameters . In fig 6.12 the jet flow a clear of the tube , in which case the flow is exactly the same
as that for sharp-edged orifice.

24
 since the jet is as large as the opening , Cc = 1 and C = Cv. Experiments on water flowing through
standard short tubes under the condition showed that C is about 0.82 , which value is that of Cv also.
With the use of two equation the loss of head is either

25
26
N. RE-ENTRANT TUBES : BORDA MOUTHPIECE
openings in the form of cylindrical tubes which extend inwardly from the wall of the container as
in figure 6.13 are called re-entrant tubes. Since the particles must change direction by as much as 180
degree the issuing jet through such devices is contracted more than that of the sharp-edged orifice.

27
Note that, because of the presence of the opening , there is an excess pressure force on the
projection of the tube area along section ab on the opposite wall. This is a static force and can be
expressed as

Where A is the area of the tube or the projection ab. However , this is balanced by the dynamic
force effected by a change in the momentum of the mass per second passing through the
mouthpiece. And assuming that this mass starts with a velocity of zero before it leaves with a
final velocity Va , the dynamics force is

28
29
It will assumed that there is no loss upstream from the contracted section and no change in pressure
at the walls of the container , as previously considered. For the expanding stream downstream of the
vena contracta, the head loss is identical to that of the minor loss in a pipeline at sudden contraction
that is

Between the surface in the container to the issuing jet in the mouthpiece , write the Bernoulli equation
using the foregoing considerations on head losses,

Where h is the vertical distance between the surface and the opening.

30
The equation above may now be solved for the actual velocity,

As before , the change in the momentum of the discharging mass of liquid is equated to the excess
pressure force or

Simultaneous solution of eq of the 2 gives

Which is to be expected since it is based on the same assumptions as we used for Cc on free
discharge.

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O. THE DIVERGING TUBE
If the sides of the diverging tube do not diverge rapidly and the total divergence is not too large ,
the outgoing stream expands and fills the tube completely.

At the point m , the pressure is the least in the tube and to compute this , write the energy equation
between point m and the discharge end losses neglected,

Which gives the absolute pressure head at point m as

32
Where A is the area at the discharge end. Here C varies with the size , shape and the angle of
divergence angle of the tube.

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 for the values given above C is noted to e fairly constant at all head exceeding 6 cm and this
may be considered as the critical head to effect full in the tube.

P. THE CONICAL NOZZLE

The expression for the head loss in a nozzle was likewise determined to be

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Q. SUBMERGED TUBES
may likewise be used for a submerged tube that is

Where C is the coefficient of discharge , A is the area of the tube and h is the difference in elevation
of the liquid surfaces. As in the case of a submerged orifice, the value of C for tubes is not much
affected by the submergence of the opening.

R. WEIR
- is essentially an overflow structure extending across an open channel normal to the direction
of flow and widely used for the purpose of flow metering and control. generally weirs are classified in
accordance to their shapes.
- A sharp-crested weir has a thin upstream edge so fashioned that the passing mass of liquid simply
touched a line.

35
S. SUPRESSED RECTANGULAR WEIR
to determine the flow over a supressed rectangular weir installed across an open channel , we
consider an elementary rectangular opening across the flow area as shown. The theoretical flow
through this slot with dimensions L x dh using the principle of the orifice, losses neglected is

36
Using a correction factor to take care of the head losses initially neglected , the total actual flow may
now be expressed.

T. THE CONTRACTED RECTANGULAR WEIR

when the ends of the weir opening have sharp upstream vertical edges the effect is to reduce the
amount of flow from that which would occur over a standard weir under the same head and with the
same length. Such kind of weir is known as a contracted rectangular weir.

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38
W. THE TRIANGULAR or V-NOTCH WEIR

illustrates a triangular weir or V-notch weir with a vertex angle , length of the liquid surface L , and
head over the vertex H an elementary opening having an area x dh and under a head ( O< h < H) is
taken into consideration. Neglecting head losses and the velocity head of approach , the theoretical
discharged.

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40
X. THE TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR

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PROBLEMS :
1. In the figure shown, solve for the theoretical velocity of the jet , the actual velocity and the
discharge through the orifice considering the following
(a.) p1 = p2 = 0 Cc = 1.00 (rounded)
h = 5 m of oil Cv = 0.97
Do = 5 cm
(b.) p1 = p2 = 0 Cc = 0.62 (sharp-edged)
h = 5 m of water Cv = 0.98
Do = 5 cm
(c.) p1 = 70 Kpa C = Cv = 0.95 (rounded)
p2 = 0 Do = 7.5 cm
h = 1.60 m (liquid with s=3)

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2. The horizontal orifice shown in the figure is 7.5 cm in diameter with Cc = 0.63 , Cv = 0.98. when h =
2.30 m , compute the height to which the jet will rise above the orifice. What is the diameter of the jet 1
m above the orifice ? Neglect air friction.

3. Compute the velocity and rate of discharge of water from a standard 5 cm diameter orifice under a
head of 3m.
4. A calibration test of a 12.5 mm circular sharp-edged orifice in the vertical side of a large tank
showed a discharged of 590 N of water 81 sec at a head of 4.70 m. measurement of he jet showed
that it traveled 2.35 m horizontally while dropping 30 cm. compute the three (3) orifice coefficients.
5.5 A vertical cylindrical tank a has an orifice in its vertical side at point 0.60 m above the bottom. If the
discharge reduces the depth of water in the tank from 6 m to 4 m in 78 seconds , what time is required
to reduce the depth from 3.60 m to 1.60m?

43
6. Determine the probable discharge inn a concrete culvert , 4 ft (1.22 m) in diameter and under a head
of 5 ft (1.52 m ) if the length is 40 ft (12.20 m ). The entrance is square-cornered.
7. A contracted rectangular sharp-crested weir 1.83 m long discharges water under a head of 47 cm .
Compute the flow by using Francis correction applied to the Francis formula. Check by the cone
formula/

44
II. FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
A. CRITICAL VELOCITY
this limiting condition was determined through the efforts of Reynolds who made a study of the
problem in 1883. his experiment on pipe flow and the conclusion he derived from the results are
presented as follows:

However the velocity alone is not the only factor in characterizing the type of flow in pipes. A
complete criterion was developed by reynolds to include all fluids for the determination of the flow
type. The dimensionless parameter called as the Reynolds number was used as the complete
determining factor

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B. HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
As mentioned in the development of the energy equation head losses are expressed in meters of
the flowing fluid or in energy per unit weight of the fluid. In pipe flow these losses are attributed to the
following :
1. “pipe friction” or friction due to sliding of the particles of fluid against each other,
2. “local disturbance” effecting changes in the velocity and flow direction.
Respectively , these are categorized as minor and major losses.
- The collective major and minor losses is usually designated as

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C. PIPE FRICTION ; HEAD LOSS DUE TO PIPE FRICTION
-if the flow of a fluid in a smooth pipe is laminar the resistance to flow is effected by the vicous shear
between particles which move in parallel paths but under different velocities.

In the study to determine the laws governing the loss of head due to pipe friction, it has been observed
that the resistance to flow is
1. Directly proportional to the length of the pipe L
2. Varying to a certain power of the mean velocity , V
3. Dependent on the pipe walls roughness , only under turbulent conditons
4. Inversely proportional to some power of the diameter , D
5. Independent of the pressure which effects fluid motion.

The head loss , being dependent on the flow resistance , may now be written as

Where K is the constant of proportionality which is dependent on pipe roughness only under turbulent
conditions.

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48
 For the dimensions on both sides of the above equation to be the same , we have

Theory and experiment give the exponent of L as x = 1, and so m , y, and z in terms of n are obtained
by simultaneous solution of the system represented by eq. 7.8 to be

Which could be rearranged in the form

to get the head lost, hf , we divide both sides of the above equation by w or pg,

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Where the term inside the braces is the Reynolds number given previously as Eq. 7.1 . The head lost
is now written as

D. COEFFICIENT OF PIPE FRICTION , f , FOR WATER

For straight smooth pipes which carries water turbulent conditions. Fanning gives the average
values of the pipes friction coefficient f for different pipe diameters and man velocities of flow. Table
7.1 show that f for water in straight smooth pie decrease with increasing diameter for any given
velocity of flow.

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E. THE FRICTIONAL LOSS IN LAMINAR FLOW ; HAGEN-POISEUILLE EQUATION

Let L be the length of a horizontal straight pipe (Fig. 76.) flowing under steady laminar conditions at the
end sections p1 and p2 represent the average pressures , respectively. A cylindrical shell abcd
concentric with the pipe and having a thickness dy and radius y is considered throughout thelenght of
the pipe. The pressure force difference between the end sections is

51
Integration of Eq. 7.13 between O and y gives

52
 To get the elemental flow dQ through an elemental ring having a thickness of dy and radious y see figure
7.6 we write

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F. PIPE FRICTION COEFFICIENT f OF THE DARCY WEISBACH EQUATION
For laminar flow , that us when the Reynolds number Re is less than or about 2000, the
determination of f is obtained from the Hagen-Poiseuille equation or

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55
G. WETTED PERIMETER ; HYDRAULIC RADIUS
in any conduit flowing full or partially full the wetted perimeter P is the curve of intersection of its
wetted surface with a cross sectional plane in fig. 7.10 the wetted perimeter is the curve defined by the
broken line abcd , while inn a circular pipe flowing full fig 7.1 0the wetted perimeter is the circumference
of the circle

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H. HYDRAULICS AND ENERGY GRADIENTS IN A STRAIGHT PIPE
the loss of head hf is defined graphically in figure 7.11 for the case of a straight pipe having a
uniform diameter D, length L and mean velocity V. Points a and b at the surfaces in the piezometers
are measures of the potential energies per unit weight at sections 1 and 2 respectively along the pipe
line based from a refence datum place.

57
I. OTHER PIPE FORMULAS
(a) The Chezy Equation
Frome the Darcy-Weisbach equation

58
 (b) The Manning Equation
The formula that is best applied to the solution of open channel problems may also be used in pipe
floe problems. This is the Manning equation which is written as

IF EQUATION 7.30 and D= 4R are substituted into the Darcy-Weisbach equation 7.10 we get

59
Equation 7.31 gives the head loss in terms of the coefficient of roughness n and the same pipe and flow
properties found in the Darcy-Weisbach equation. This is also known as the Manning equation for pipe
frictional losses.
(c.) The Hazen-Williams Equation
In the English units a formula that is widely used in the united states particularly in water-supply
system designs is

It will be noted that it is nearly similar to the Hazen-Williams equation and so their coefficient must have
values which are practically the same, that is ,

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61
J. MANNING AND HAZEN-WILLIAMS DIAGRAMS
(a.) The Manning Diagram
With a value of n = 0.011 used in his equation , Manning plotted on a logarithmic paper the
head loss variation with flow variation for pipes having diameters ranging from 3 in (7.5 cm) to 60 in. The
diagram show a hf per 1000 ft of pipe represented along the horizontal axis. Diameters I inches are
shown to be lines sloping up to the right and the velocities in feet per second are drawn as lines sloping
down to the right. Qith the use of this diagram , for n = 0.011 any two given quantities automitacally
gives the values of the other two. Manning’s hydraulics and fluids mechanics books
(b.) The Hazen-Williams Diagram
Using C1= 120 in their formula , Hazen and Williams developed a relatively different diagram
for direct solutions of pipe flow problems. The diagram shows four vertical lines each representing
variations in head loss hf per 1000 feet discharge Q diameter D and mean velocity. The lines are so
spaced and graduated that the corresponding values of the four quantities lie in straight traverse line.
For values C1 other than 120 similar diagrams may be developed.

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PROBLEMS:
1. A city water supply pipeline consists of a new 60 cm cast-iron pipe. Compute the frictional loss of
head per kilometre of pipe when the discharge is 0.35 m^3/s.
2. Determine the discharge of water through a 90 cm wood-stave pipe if the lost of head is 5 J/N in a
length of 1600 m.
3. What diameter of wood-stave pipe should be installed to carry 1.42 m^3/s of water for 8km with a
loss of head of 1.50 J/N?
4. Water is pumped through a vertical 5 cm new galvanized iron pipe to an elevated tank on the roof of
building. The pressure on the discharge side if the pump is 1380 KPa. What pressure can be expected
at a point in the pipe 76 m above the pump when the flow is 9.5 liter?
5. A 10 cm new steel pipe carries 16 liter of a heavy fuel oil at a temperature of 27 degree celcius .
Determine the pipe friction loss for 1600 m long pipe.
6. Determine the discharge of new 40 cm cst0iron pipe if the friction is 35 kpa per 300 m and the liquid
is heavy oil at 15 degree celcious.
7. Two points A and B o a new steel pipe having a diameter of a 15 cm are 1000 m apart. Point B is 20
m higher than point A. if the flow from A to B is 0.044 m^3/s of medium oil at 15 degree celcious what
pressure must be maintained at A if the pressure at B is 350 kpa?
8. Determine the loss of head due to pipe friction in 2500 ft of 10 in pipe carrying 2 cfs. Use n = 0.011.
9. If the allowable loss of head in a 20 in in wood pipe is 15 ft per mile , determine the discharge. Use
C1 = 120.

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III. FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
In general the term in open channel is used to define all natural streams and artificial canals having
surfaces exposed to the pressure of the atmosphere. All forms of closed conduits which flow only
partially full are also in the category of open channels.

A. UNIFORM OF FLOW ; TOTAL ENERGY

under these conditions , the continuity of flow provides that the velocity be constant throughout
the reach and that the slopes of the channels bed , the water surface and the energy gradient be all
equal.

64
 the energy gradient , So is the slope of the streambed , and Sws is the slope of the water surface
or the hydraulic gradient.
the energy equation between sections (1) and (2) gives

B. WETTED PERIMETER ; HYDRAULIC RADIUS

the wetted perimeter P and the hydraulic or mean radius R have been defined. Recall that the
hydraulic radius was expressed by equation

Where is A is the flow area at the section under consideration and P is the wetted perimeter or the curve
of intersection of the wetted surface with the plane of the section.

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C. THE CHEZY FORMULA : A UNIFORM FLOW FORMULA
the general equation for frictional losses in a pipe under pressure was developed that is

Which is the Darcy-Weisbach pipe friction loss equation. In an open channel flowing under uniform flow
conditions, the basic considerations used in the derivation of equation 7.10 may similarly be applied.

figure 8.2 illustrates the different forces acting in an open channel flowing uniformly between
sections (1) and (2) :
(a) Pressure forces F1 and F2 at the end sections; F1 = F2 since the depths is uniform over the reach,
(b) Gravity force W; W = A L w , where A is the constant cross sectional area , L is the channel length
and w is the specific weight.

66
67
D. DETERMINATION OF CHEZY C
(a) Kutter and Ganguillet Equation
the Swiss engineers , Kutter and Gunguillet , in 1869 developed a formula for Chezy C based
from all available data on open channel investigations made on small , artificial channels up to larger
ones which included the measurements on the Mississippi River. In SI units , Kutter and Ganguillet give
the value of C as follows

Equation shows that C is dependent on the slope S , the hydraulic radius R, and the coefficient of
roughness n. the values of n for various type of surfaces have been provided by Kutter and Ganguillet
but not all construction materials were covered.

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 VALUES OF n : MANNING AND KUTTER FORMULA

DESCRIPTION OF CHANNEL AVERAGE VALUE OF

n
1. Small straight flumes of best planed timber , or laboratory flumes lined with 0.009
glass or brass
2. Lowest value to be used for straight planed timber under ideal conditions 0.010

3. New planed timber or wood-stave flumes under excellent conditions ; 0.012

channel lined with smoothly finished concrete ; smooth straight metal flumes
4. Vitrified sewer pipes ,larger sizes , well laid ; glazed brickwork ; good 0.013
concrete pipe
5. Conduit lined with brick ; vitrified sewer pipe and concrete pipe in fair 0.015
conditions
6. Metal flumes with heavy compression bar ;; other flumes in poor conditions 0.017

7. Straight unlined canals in earth in best conditions 0.020

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8. Design value for unlined canals in earth and gravel with some curves , in good 0.0225
conditions
9. Corrugated metal flumes and culverts ; unlined canal in earth and gravel , 0.025
winding and fair
10. Canals with rough stony beds or with weed on earth banks ; dredged 0.030
ditches , clean and straight
11. Winding natural streams , clean with pools ; dredged ditches in fair conditions 0.035

12. Rivers of irregular cross section at low stages ; streams and canals 0.040 to 0.100
obstructed with vegetation
13. Overbank flow on floodplains 0.100 to 0.175

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 (b) Manning Equation
From the results of his tests on open channels , Manning concluded that the C of Chezy varies
as the 1/6 power of the hydraulic radius R. other investigatios observed that the proportionality factor
of Manninngs R1/6 term is the reciprocal of the coefficient of roughness n in the Kutter and Ganguillet
formula. In the SI units the Manning equation is

Where the dimension of n is seen to be second per meter which is also the same may further be
written to conform to the Chezy equation or

Verifying the statement earlier. It is to be noted that the C of Chezy as provided by Manning is
independent of the slope S and far more simple in form than the Kutter and Ganguillet formula.

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 (c.) Bazin Equation
H. Bazin published in 1887 an article in which he proposed a formula for the determination of
Chezy C. in th SI units , it is given in the following form

Where m is a roughness coefficient similar to the Kutter-Ganguillet and Manning coefficient n. Bazin
formula makes C independent of the slope S , a factor that is also provided in the Manning equation.
Bazin’s equation is widely used in France and generally results in smaller vaues than that of Kutter nd
Ganguillet.

VALUE OF m : Bazin Formula

Description of Channel Value of m

1. Smooth cement or planed wood 0.109

2. Planks and bricks 0.290

3. Rubble masonry 0.833

4. Earth channels of very regular surface 1.540

5. Ordinary earth channels 2.360

6. Exceptionally rough channels 3.170

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E. ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW
it was stated that the specific energy Es at any given channel section is the sum of the pressure
head or depth of flow and the velocity head or

from equation 8.2 the mean velocity can be obtained as

and for a rectangular channel having dimensions b x d , the total is flow is

To determine the discharge per meter width of the channel equation 8.12 is divided by the width b
or

which is sometimes known as the unit flow q that is

73
 for a constant or given specific energy Es equation 8.12 a may be graphed showing the variation of
q with d as shown in figure 8.3 the point in the figure are obtained by assigning values to d from 0 to the
given value of Es and solving for the corresponding values of q.

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F. CRITICAL DEPTH ; CRITICAL SLOPE
to determine the relationship that will five the critical depth dc equation 8.12 is differentiated
relative to the depth d and the derivative dq//dd set to zero.

Another relationship defining dc may be obtained by substituting eq 8.14 to eq 8.12 resulting into

From which the maximum possible discharge per meter width of the channel is

75
 if q is fixed and the specific energy is plotted against the depth of flow d, equation 8.12 a will have
a graph represented in figure 8.4

The graph show that the upper portion of equation 8.12 a with fixed q ia asymptotic to t he line
Es=d , while the lower prt is asymptotic to the Es axis. Here the critical depth is the depth at
minimum specific energy Es and as derived earlier is

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Which is known as the critical velocity , Eq. 8.17 serve as a criterion for the determination of the type of
cannel flow :

The slope of the channel bed at critical depth dc and flowing with critical velocity Vc is known as the critical
slope Sc , with the use of the Manning Equation ,

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G. CRITICAL DEPTH : NON – RECTANGULAR SECTION
the discussion on critical depth of flow in an earlier section was confined primarily to channels
having rectangular cross sections. Here , the analysis for finding the critical depth for irregular sections
will be presented.
if an irregular channel section has an area A and flowing with a given discharge Q figure 8.5 the
following steps are observed to calculate dc. Take an elemental area L dd = dA at the surface of the
section , where L is the length of the liquid surface. Generally , L is a function of the depth of flow d.
next consider equation 8.2 which is

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Where A is a function of the depth d and Q is the constant discharge.
finally eq 8.19 is differentiated relative to the depth d and the derivative equated to zero (this is the
condition set in the graph of figure 8.4 that is the definition of the critical depth minimizing Es and the
discharge given aa fixed value

In EQ 8.20 the term at the left side is a constant , while the one at the right side is a function of the
depth or , in this case the critical depth dc. Ordinarily this equation is solved for dc by a trial and error
method.

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H. OPTIMUM CHANNEL SECTION
the optimum open channel section or the section with the greatest hydraulics effiency (also the
most advantageous or most economical section) is the one which for a given area A , slope S, and
roughness coefficient n will provide the greates discharge Q.
on the otherhand , if the slope S is solved from the Chezy equation , or

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PROBLEMS :
1. What uniform flow will occur in a rectangular planed timber flume (n= 0.010) 1.5 m wide and having
a slope of 0.001 when the depth therein is 1 m ? Use Manning C and check by the Kutter C.
2. Water flows uniformly at a depth of 1.20 m in a rectangular canal 3 m wide, laid on a slope of 1 m
per kilometre. What is he average shear stress at the sides and bottom of the canal?
3. A channel having a rectangular section and base width 3 m carries a flow of 5.70 m^3/s . Find the
critical depth , the critical velocity and the critical slope if n = 0.011
4. Water flowing in a rectangular flume with ta velocity of 4 m/s and a depth of 1 m. is the flow at upper
or lower stage? What is the other alternate depth of flow?
5. A flow of 280 liters of water is carried in a 90 degree –V notch flume with n= 0.011. find the critical
depth.
6. An isosceles trapezoidal canal with SS 2H to IV has a bottom width of 3 m and carries a flow of 1
m^3 / s. find the critical depth.
7. A trapezoidal canal has one side vertical and the other sloping at 45 degree . Its discharge is 25
m^3/s and its mean velocity is 1 m/s . If the slope is at its barest minimum, find the dimension of the
section.
8. If the most efficient of all sections can be used what shape and size of open channel would you
recommend to carry 8.5 m^3/s of water with a velocity of 2m/s?

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THANK YOU!.

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