Project on

Submi
 WHAT IS ROBOT
The line following robot, operates as the name
specifies. It is programmed to follow a white line
on a dark background and detect turns or
deviations and modify the motors appropriately.

 Robots
Machines with sensing, intelligence and
mobility
Robots may or may not possesses intelligence.
 Why build a line follower?
The control system used must sense a line and
maneuver the robot to stay on course, while constantly
correcting the wrong moves using feedback mechanism,
thus forming a simple yet effective closed loop System.
The robot is designed to follow very tight curves.

• As a programmer you get an opportunity to ‘teach’ the

robot how to follow the line thus giving it a human-like
property of responding to stimuli.
 TYPES OF ROBOTIC
INTELLIGENCE

Expert Neural
systems Systems
THE LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT
(LFR)
COMPLETE (LFR) MODEL
 REQUIREMENT OF THE LFR
The robot must be capable of following a line.
It should be capable of taking various degrees of
turns
It must be prepared of a situation that it runs into a
territory which has no line to follow. (Barren land
syndrome)
The robot must also be capable of following a line
even if it has breaks.
CONTINUE…

The robot must be insensitive to environmental

factors such as lighting and noise.
It must allow calibration of the line’s darkness
threshold.
Scalability must be a primary concern in the design.
The color of the line must not be a factor as long as it
is darker than the surroundings.
BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

Sensor Voltage Direction control

(LDR) comparators logic
array

Bidirectional Motor Drive Unit

Motor
DESIGN OF SENSOR ARRAY

Left Sensor

Right Sensor Array

Front Sensor

Middle Sensor
 DIRECTION CONTROL LOGIC

Conditions Inputs of the direction Outputs of the control

control

(A) (B) (C) EnL EnR DirL DirR

Out of
Track 0 0 0 1 0 1 *
Do
0 0 1 1 0 1 *
Right Turn
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
Forward
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
Out of
Track 1 0 0 1 0 1 *
DO
1 0 1 1 0 1 *
Left Turn
1 1 0 1 1 0 1
Forward
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF LFR
LINE FOLLOWING PRINCIPLE

SINGLE SENSOR
Detects edge.
Directs Power alternately to two motors.
Advantages-
Single sensor.
Suitable for sharp curves.
Disadvantages-
Jerky motion.
If robot leaves path
 Turns 180 and moves in opposite direction Turns 180’
DUAL SENSOR

Two LDR’s.
Each sensor controls one motor.
Left sensor controls right motor and vice versa

Advantages
Smooth motion on straight line

Disadvantages
Two Sensors
Two motors should be synchronized
LIGHT DEPENDENT RASISTOR

• Electronic components where the resistance of the device

varies with light intensity.
• Also called LDRs, photoresistors or photoconductors.
• Used to detect Presence of Light.
• Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high(1 MΩ).
• When illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.
• Working-
• Made of a high resistance semiconductor.
• Photons are absorbed by the semiconductor.
• Bound electrons jump into the conduction band.
LIGHT DEPENDENT RASISTOR

 The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance.
 Types Cadmium sulfide (CdS)- LDRs Camera light meters, clock radios,
security alarms and street lights.
 Ge: Cu photoconductors
 Far -infrared detectors.
 Used for infrared astronomy
and infrared
 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Usually made ofGallium-Arsenide

(AlGaAs)-
 Pure aluminum-gallium-arsenide.-
 All of the atoms bond perfectly to their
neighbors.
 No free electrons to conduct electric current.
 In doped material-
 Additional atoms change the balance,
either adding free electrons or creating
holes where electrons can go.
 Makes the material more conductive.
 The interaction between electrons and holes
generates light
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE’s
WORKING
VOLTAGE COMPARATOR OPERATION
 Reference voltage-One-half of the supply voltage
 Input voltage-Variable from zero to the supply voltage
COMPARATOR IC
COMPARATOR IC
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS-

ELECTRONICS PROBLEMS

LDR Initially used had very high resistance (in MΩ).New LDR’s
were not exactly the same.One was 3 K KΩΩ, Other was 10 K,
KΩΩ.
Had to tune each circuit differently.
The two LED’s had different light intensity.
Separating the two LED’s
Transistor-Initially BC107 used
 Amperage rating was not high enough.
Amperage Gave rise to heating problems.
Replaced it with BDX530 which has a Heat sink.
MECHANICAL PROBLEMS-

Gear Assembly-
Was not very rigid.
Direction of Motion-
Power not enough to push robot
.Changed Motor position to pull the Robot.
Friction-
High due to lack of third wheel.
Teflon Tape helped to reduce friction.
Height of Sensor-
Circuit to be calibrated based on
 height of Sensor from the ground
POSIBLE IMPROVEMENT

Have separate power source for Control circuit

and Motor.
Improve mechanical drive train.
Include-
Microprocessor.
Collision and obstacle avoidance.
Multiple AGV