Maxwell’s Equations

q
S E  dA  εo Gauss's law  electric 

 B  dA  0
S
Gauss's law in magnetism

dB
 E  ds   dt Faraday's law

dE
 B  ds  μo I  εo μo dt Ampere-Maxwell law
•The two Gauss’s laws are symmetrical, apart from the absence of the term for
magnetic monopoles in Gauss’s law for magnetism
•Faraday’s law and the Ampere-Maxwell law are symmetrical in that the line
integrals of E and B around a closed path are related to the rate of change of
the respective fluxes
• Gauss’s law (electrical):
• The total electric flux through any
q
S E  dA  εo
closed surface equals the net charge
inside that surface divided by o
• This relates an electric field to the
charge distribution that creates it

• Gauss’s law (magnetism):

• The total magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero
• This says the number of field lines
that enter a closed volume must

•
equal the number that leave that
volume  B  dA  0
S
This implies the magnetic field lines
cannot begin or end at any point
• Isolated magnetic monopoles have
not been observed in nature
• Faraday’s law of Induction:
• This describes the creation of an electric field by a
changing magnetic flux
• The law states that the emf, which is the line
integral of the electric field around any closed path, dB
•
equals the rate of change of the magnetic flux
through any surface bounded by that path
One consequence is the current induced in a
 E  ds   dt
conducting loop placed in a time-varying B

• The Ampere-Maxwell law is a generalization of

Ampere’s law

dE
 B  ds  μo I  εo μo dt
• It describes the creation of a magnetic field by an
electric field and electric currents
• The line integral of the magnetic field around any
closed path is the given sum
 Maxwell’s Equation’s in integral form
  Q 1
 A E  dA  o  o 
V
dV Gauss’s Law

 
 A
B  dA  0 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

  d B d  
Faraday’s Law
 C E  d   
dt
  
dt A
B  dA

  d E  dE  
 C B  d   o Iencl  oo dt   o A  J   o dt   dA
Ampere’s Law
 Maxwell’s Equation’s in free space
(no charge or current)
 
 A
E  dA  0 Gauss’s Law

 
 A
B  dA  0 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

  d B d  
 C E  d    dt   dt A B  dA Faraday’s Law

  d E d  
 C B  d   oo dt  oo dt A E  dA Ampere’s Law
 Hertz’s Experiment
• An induction coil is connected to a
transmitter
• The transmitter consists of two spherical
electrodes separated by a narrow gap
• The discharge between the electrodes
exhibits an oscillatory behavior at a very
high frequency
• Sparks were induced across the gap of the
receiving electrodes when the frequency of
the receiver was adjusted to match that of
the transmitter
• In a series of other experiments, Hertz also
showed that the radiation generated by this
equipment exhibited wave properties
– Interference, diffraction, reflection,
refraction and polarization
• He also measured the speed of the radiation
 Implication
• A magnetic field will be produced in empty space if there
is a changing electric field. (correction to Ampere)
• This magnetic field will be changing. (originally there
was none!)
• The changing magnetic field will produce an electric field.
(Faraday)
• This changes the electric field.
• This produces a new magnetic field.
• This is a change in the magnetic field.
 An antenna

Hook up an
AC source

We have changed the magnetic

field near the antenna

An electric field results! This is

the start of a “radiation field.”
 Look at the cross section
Called:
“Electromagnetic Waves”
Accelerating
electric charges
give rise to
electromagnetic
waves

E and B are perpendicular (transverse)

We say that the waves are “polarized.”
E and B are in phase (peaks and zeros align)
 Angular Dependence of Intensity
• This shows the angular
dependence of the radiation
intensity produced by a dipole
antenna
• The intensity and power
radiated are a maximum in a
plane that is perpendicular to
the antenna and passing
through its midpoint
• The intensity varies as
(sin2 θ / r2
 Harmonic Plane Waves
 At t = 0
E spatial period or
wavelength

x


 At x = 0  2  
E v   f  
T T 2 k

t
 temporal period
Applying Faraday to radiation

  d B
 C E  d    dt
 
 E  d    E  dE  y  Ey  dEy
C

d B dB
 dxy
dt dt
dB
dEy   dxy
dt
dE dB

dx dt
Applying Ampere to radiation
  d E
 C B  d   oo dt
 
 B  d   Bz   B  dB  z  dBz
C
d E dE
 dxz
dt dt
dE
dBz   o  o dxz
dt
dB dE
  o o
dx dt
 Fields are functions of both
position (x) and time (t)
dE dB Partial derivatives E B
 are appropriate

dx dt x t

dB dE B E
  o  o   o  o
dx dt x t

E2
 B  B 2E
   o  o 2
x 2
x t t x t

2E 2E This is a wave

 oo 2
x 2
t equation!
 The Trial Solution
• The simplest solution to the partial differential
equations is a sinusoidal wave:
– E = Emax cos (kx – ωt)
– B = Bmax cos (kx – ωt)
• The angular wave number is k = 2π/λ
– λ is the wavelength
• The angular frequency is ω = 2πƒ
– ƒ is the wave frequency
 The trial solution
E  E y  E o sin  kx  t 
2E 2E
 oo 2
x 2
t

2E 2E
  k E o sin  kx  t 
2
  E o sin  kx  t 
2

x 2
t 2

k 2 E o sin  kx  t   o  o 2 E o sin  kx  t 

2 1

k 2
o  o
 The speed of light
(or any other electromagnetic radiation)
 2  
v   f  
T T 2 k

 1
vc 
k o  o
The electromagnetic spectrum
 2  
v   f  
T T 2 k
 Another look
dE dB

dx dt
B  Bz  Bo sin  kx  t  E  E y  E o sin  kx  t 

d d
E o sin  kx  t    Bo sin  kx  t 
dx dt

E o k cos  kx  t   Bo  cos  kx  t 

Eo  1
 c
Bo k o o
 Energy in Waves
1 1 2
u  0 E 
2
B
2 2 0

u  0 E 2

Eo  1 2
 c
1 u B
Bo k o o 0

0
u EB
0
 Poynting Vector
 1  
S
0
EB 
EB E 2 c B 2
S  
μo μo c μo

S  cu
• Poynting vector points in the direction the wave moves
• Poynting vector gives the energy passing through a unit
area in 1 sec.
• Units are Watts/m2
 Intensity
• The wave intensity, I, is the time average of
S (the Poynting vector) over one or more
cycles
• When the average is taken, the time average
of cos2(kx - ωt) = ½ is involved

E max Bmax E m2 ax c Bmax

2
I  S av     cu ave
2 μo 2 μo c 2 μo
 Radiation Pressure
F 1 dp
P 
A A dt

U (Absorption of radiation
Maxwell showed: p  by an object)
c

1 dU Save
P 
Ac dt c
What if the radiation reflects off an object?
 Pressure and Momentum
• For a perfectly reflecting surface,
p = 2U/c and P = 2S/c
• For a surface with a reflectivity somewhere
between a perfect reflector and a perfect absorber,
the momentum delivered to the surface will be
somewhere in between U/c and 2U/c
• For direct sunlight, the radiation pressure is about
5 x 10-6 N/m2