All You Need To Know About Grammar

Index
Page Number
Present Continuous Tense -----------------------------------------------------------------------1

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense ? ----------------------------------------2
Present Continuous for action happening now --------------------------------------------2
Present Continuous For the Future ----------------------------------------------------------3
How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense? ----------------------------------------4
Simple Present Tense -------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
How do we use the Simple Present Tense? ------------------------------------------------7
Simple Past Tense ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
How do we make the Simple Past Tense? -------------------------------------------------9
Simple Future Tense --------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
How do use the Simple Future Tense ? ----------------------------------------------------13
Past Continuous Tense ----------------------------------------------------------------------------15
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense ? -----------------------------------------15
How do we use the Past Continuous Tense ? --------------------------------------------16
Past Continuous Tense + Past Simple Tense --------------------------------------------17
Present Perfect Tense ? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------18
How do we make the Present Perfect Tense ? ------------------------------------------18
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense ? ---------------------------------------------19
Present Perfect Tense for experience ------------------------------------------------------19
Present Perfect Tense for change ----------------------------------------------------------20
Present Perfect Tense for continuing situation -------------------------------------------20
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense ---------------------------------------------------21
Present Perfect Continuous Tense -------------------------------------------------------------22
How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense ? ---------------------------22
Past Perfect Tense -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense ? -----------------------------------------------26
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense ? --------------------------------------------------28
Future Perfect Tense --------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense ? --------------------------------------------30
Future Perfect Continuous Tense --------------------------------------------------------------33
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense ? ----------------------------33
How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense ? ------------------------------34
Past Perfect Continuous Tense -----------------------------------------------------------------35
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense ? ------------------------------35
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense ? ---------------------------------36
Future Continuous Tense -------------------------------------------------------------------------38
How do we make the Future Continuous Tense ? --------------------------------------38
How do we use the Future Continuous Tense ? ----------------------------------------40
-A-
Determiners : ( Articles , Possessives , Other determiners) ------------------------41
Determiners : A , An or The ? ---------------------------------------------------------------42
Determiners : Each , Every ------------------------------------------------------------------43
Determiners : Some , Any --------------------------------------------------------------------44
Pronouns ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------46
Personal Pronouns -----------------------------------------------------------------------------46
Adjectives ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------48
Adjective Order ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------48
Adjective Before Noun -------------------------------------------------------------------------49
Adjective After Verb -----------------------------------------------------------------------------50
Comparative Adjectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------51
Formation of Comparative Adjectives ------------------------------------------------------52
Use of Comparative Adjectives --------------------------------------------------------------53
Superlative Adjectives -------------------------------------------------------------------------54
Formation of superlative Adjectives --------------------------------------------------------55
Use of Superlative Adjectives ----------------------------------------------------------------56
Nouns ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------58
Countable Nouns --------------------------------------------------------------------------------59
Uncountable Nouns -----------------------------------------------------------------------------60
Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable -----------------------------------------62
Proper Nouns ( Names ) -----------------------------------------------------------------------63
Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns --------------------------------------------------63
Proper Nouns without The ------------------------------------------------------------------64
Proper Nouns with the -----------------------------------------------------------------------66
Possessive's ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------68
Proper Nouns ( Names ) -----------------------------------------------------------------69
Irregular Plurals ----------------------------------------------------------------------------69
Main Verbs -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
Linking Verbs ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------71
Stative Verbs ( examples ) -------------------------------------------------------------------71
Regular and Irregular Verbs -----------------------------------------------------------------71
Adverbs -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------75
Adverbs of Frequency ------------------------------------------------------------------------76
Prepositions ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
Questions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------81
Basic Question Structure --------------------------------------------------------------------81
Basic Question Types ------------------------------------------------------------------------82
Tag Questions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------84
Question tags with imperatives-------------------------------------------------------------90
Same – way question tags ------------------------------------------------------------------90
-B-
Active Voice , Passive Voice : ----------------------------------------------------------------91
Active Voice --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
Passive Voice ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------92
Use of Passive Voice --------------------------------------------------------------------------92
Conjugation for the Passive Voice --------------------------------------------------------93
Gerunds ( - ing ) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
Gerunds as Subject , Object or Complement -------------------------------------------95
Gerunds after Prepositions ------------------------------------------------------------------96
Gerunds after Certain Verbs ----------------------------------------------------------------97
Gerunds in Passive Sense ------------------------------------------------------------------98
Modal Verbs ( modal auxiliaries ) -----------------------------------------------------------99
Can , Could , Be able to ---------------------------------------------------------------------99
Can -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
Use of Can -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
Can : Requests and Orders ----------------------------------------------------------------100
Can : Permission ------------------------------------------------------------------------------101
Could ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------101
Use of could ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------101
Could : Requests ------------------------------------------------------------------------------102
Be able to ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------103
Structure of Be able to -----------------------------------------------------------------------103
Use of Be able to ------------------------------------------------------------------------------104
Used to do --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------105
Structure of Used to do ----------------------------------------------------------------------105
Use of Used to do -----------------------------------------------------------------------------105
Be used to ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------106
Structure of Be used to -----------------------------------------------------------------------106
Use of Be used to ------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
Tenses --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
Conjunctions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------108
Coordinating Conjunctions -------------------------------------------------------------------109
Subordinating Conjunctions -----------------------------------------------------------------110
Phrasal Verbs ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------112
Separable Phrasal Verbs --------------------------------------------------------------------114
Prepositional Verbs ---------------------------------------------------------------------------115
Phrasal Prepositional Verbs ----------------------------------------------------------------116
Have to , Must, Must not / mustn’t ----------------------------------------------------------118
Have to ( objective obligation ) -------------------------------------------------------------118
Use of have to ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------119
Must ( subjective obligation ) ----------------------------------------------------------------120
Use of Must --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------120
Must not , Mustn’t ( Prohibition ) -----------------------------------------------------------121
Use of Must not --------------------------------------------------------------------------------122
Shall versus Will -------------------------------------------------------------------------------122
-C-
Conditionals : ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------125
Structure of Conditional Sentences -------------------------------------------------------125
First Conditional : real possibility ----------------------------------------------------------126
Second Conditional : unreal possibility or dream --------------------------------------127
Third Conditional : no possibility -----------------------------------------------------------129
Zero Conditional : certainty -----------------------------------------------------------------131
-D-
Present Continuous Tense
I am singing
We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is

very different from the simple present tense, both in structure
and in use.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present
continuous tense.
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
be base + ing
Look at these examples:
subject auxiliary verb main verb

+ I am speaking to you.
+ You are reading this.
- She is not staying in London.
- We are not playing football.
? Is he watching TV?
? Are they waiting for John?
-1-
How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?
We use the present continuous tense to talk about:
• action happening now
• action in the future
Present continuous tense for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly now
I am eating my lunch.
past present future
The action is

happening now.
b) for action happening around now

The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening
just before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.
John is going out with Mary.
past present future
The action is
happening around
now.
-2-
Present continuous tense for the future
We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the
future—if we add a future word!! We must add (or understand from
the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example,
tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the
present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have
planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a
decision and a plan before speaking.
I am taking my exam next month.
past present future
A firm plan or
The action is in the
programme exists
future.
now.

• We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..
• They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
• When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before
speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking.
-3-
How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?
We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb.
Normally it's simple—we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change
the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter.
Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous
tense.
Just add -ing to the base verb:

work > working
play > playing
Basic rule assist > assisting
see > seeing
be > being
If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant,

double the last letter:
s t o p
Exception
1
stressed
consonant consonant(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)
vowel
stop > stopping
run > running
begin > beginning
Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of
the base verb is not stressed:
open > opening
-4-
Exception 2 If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:
lie > lying
die > dying

Exception 3 If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the
e:
come > coming
mistake > mistaking
-5-
Simple Present Tense
I sing
How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

do base
There are three important exceptions:

1.For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2.For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es
to the auxiliary.
3.For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and
negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:

I, you, we, they like coffee.

+
He, she, it likes coffee.
I, you, we, they do not like coffee.

-
He, she, it does not like coffee.
Do I, you, we, they like coffee?

?
Does he, she, it like coffee?
-6-
Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that
there is no auxiliary:
subject main verb

I am French.
+ You, we, they are French.
He, she, it is French.
I am not old.
- You, we, they are not old.
He, she, it is not old.
Am I late?
? Are you, we, they late?
Is he, she, it late?
How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

We use the simple present tense when:
 the action is general
 the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present
and future
 the action is not only happening now
 the statement is always true
John drives a taxi.

past present future
It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and
future.
-7-
 I live in New York.
 The Moon goes round the Earth.
 John drives a taxi.
 He does not drive a bus.
 We do not work at night.
 Do you play football?
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense
for situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense
to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb to be in the
present simple tense—some of them are general, some of them are
now:
Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.
past present future
The situation is now.
I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.
past present future
The situation is general. Past, present and future.
This page shows the use of the simple present tense to talk about
general events. But note that there are some other uses for the simple
present tense, for example in conditional or if sentences, or to talk
about the future. You will learn about those later.
-8-
Simple Past Tense
I sang
The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can
use several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the
one we use most often.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense.
How do we make the Simple Past Tense?

To make the simple past tense, we use:
 past form only
or
 auxiliary did + base form
Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular
verbs and regular verbs:
V3
V1 V2
past
base past
participle
work worked worked The past form for all
regular
explode exploded exploded regular verbs ends in
verb
like liked liked -ed.
The past form for
go went gone
irregul irregular verbs is
see saw seen
ar verb variable. You need to
sing sang sung
learn it by heart.
You do not need
the past
participle form to
make the simple
past tense. It is
shown here for
completeness
only.
-9-
The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject + main verb
past
The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb
did base
The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
did base
The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons
(I did, you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not
change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:

I went to school.
+
You worked very hard.
She did not go with me.

-
We did not work yesterday.
Did you go to London?

?
Did they work at home?
- 10 -
Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I
was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an
auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a question, we
exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:
subject main verb

I, he/she/it was here.

+
You, we, they were in London.
I, he/she/it was not there.

-
You, we, they were not happy.
Was I, he/she/it right?

?
Were you, we, they late?
- 11 -
Simple Future Tense
I will sing
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the
simple future tense with the modal auxiliary will.
How do we make the Simple Future Tense?
The structure of the simple future tense is:
+ auxiliary verb WILL + main verb

subject
invariable base

will V1
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not

between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we
exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example
sentences with the simple future tense:

+ I will open the door.
+ You will finish before me.
- She will not be at school tomorrow.
- We will not leave yet.
? Will you arrive on time?
? Will they want dinner?
- 12 -
I'll
I will
When we use the simple future
tense in speaking, we often you will you'll
contract the subject and he will he'll
auxiliary verb: she will she'll
it will it'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
I won't
I will not
For negative sentences in the you will not you won't

simple future tense, we contract he will not he won't
with won't, like this: she will not she won't
it will not it won't
we will not we won't
they will not they won't
How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do
something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the
time of speaking. Look at these examples:
 Hold on. I'll get a pen.

 We will see what we can do to help you.
 Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is

made at the time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:
 I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.

 I think I will have a holiday next year.
 I don't think I'll buy that car.
- 13 -
Prediction
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future.
Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen.
Here are some examples:
• It will rain tomorrow.

• People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
• Who do you think will get the job?
Be
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we
have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:
• I'll be in London tomorrow.

• I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
• Will you be at work tomorrow?
Note that when we have a plan or intention to do something in the

future, we usually use other tenses or expressions, such as the
present continuous tense or going to.
- 14 -
Past Continuous Tense
I was singing
The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to
say what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the
past.
In this lesson we look at the structure and the use of the past continuous
tense.
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?
The structure of the past continuous tense is:
+ auxiliary verb BE + main verb

subject
conjugated in simple past tense present participle

was
base + ing
were
For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between
the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the past
continuous tense:

+ I was watching TV.
+ You were working hard.
- He, she, it was not helping Mary.
- We were not joking.
? Were you being silly?
? Were they playing football?
- 15 -
How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?
The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in
the past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at
that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film
started at 7pm and finished at 9pm.
At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.
past present future
At 8pm, I was in the

middle of watching TV.
When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows
or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these
examples:
• I was working at 10pm last night.
• They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
• What were you doing at 10pm last night?
• What were you doing when he arrived?
• She was cooking when I telephoned her.
• We were having dinner when it started to rain.
• Ram went home early because it was snowing.

Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive tenses.
We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We
use it to describe the background situation at the moment when the action
begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and then
moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example:
" James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was
blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the
killer in a telephone box..."
- 16 -
Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense
We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We
use the past continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the
simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the middle
of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.
In the following example, we have two actions:
1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense
2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense
Past present future
Long action.
I was watching TV at 8pm.
You telephoned at 8pm.
Short action.
We can join these two actions with when:

• I was watching TV when you telephoned.
(Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time
[8pm].)
We use:
• when + short action (simple past tense)
• while + long action (past continuous tense)
There are four basic combinations:
I was walking past the car when it exploded.

When the car exploded I was walking past it.
The car exploded while I was walking past it.
While I was walking past the car it exploded.

Notice that the long action and short action are relative.
• "Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds.
• "Walking past the car" took a few seconds. "Exploded" took a few
milliseconds
- 17 -
Present Perfect Tense
I have sung
The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it
gives speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses
concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the
structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come
with the use of the tense. In addition, there are some differences in usage
between British and American English.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect,
followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?

The structure of the present perfect tense is:
have past participle
Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:

+ I have seen ET.
+ You have eaten mine.
- She has not been to Rome.
- We have not played football.
? Have you finished?
? Have they done it?
- 18 -
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a
connection with the past and with the present. There are basically three
uses for the present perfect tense:
experience
change
continuing situation
1. Present perfect tense for experience

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the
past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only want to
know if you did it:
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from
the past. We are not interested in when you did something. We only
want to know if you did it:
I have seen ET.

He has lived in Bangkok.
Have you been there?
We have never eaten caviar.
past present future
The action or state In my head, I have a

was in the past. memory now.
Connection with past: the event was in the past.

Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of
the event; I know something about the event; I have experience
of it.
- 19 -
2. Present perfect tense for change
We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new
information:
I have bought a car.
past present future
- +
Last week I didn't have a

Now I have a car.
car.
John has broken his leg.
past present future
+ -
Yesterday John had a good leg. Now he has a bad leg.
3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation.
This is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will
probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually
use for or since with this structure.
I have worked here since June.

He has been ill for 2 days.
How long have you known Tara?
past present future
The situation started in the (It will probably continue

It continues up to now.
past. into the future.)
Connection with past: the situation started in the past.

Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.
- 20 -
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
 We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6
years.
 We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st
January, Monday.
for since
a period of time a point in past time
20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I left school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
• I have been here for 20 minutes.

• I have been here since 9 o'clock.
• John hasn't called for 6 months.
• John hasn't called since February.
• He has worked in New York for a long time.
• He has worked in New York since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect
tenses only.
- 21 -
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I have been singing
How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + main verb
have
been base + ing
has
auxiliary auxiliary main

subject
verb verb verb
+ I have been waiting for one hour.
+ You have been talking too much.
- It has not been raining.
- We have not been playing football.
? Have you been seeing her?

their
? Have they been doing
homework?
Contractions
When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking,
we often contract the subject and the first auxiliary. We also
sometimes do this in informal writing.
- 22 -
I've been
I have been
You have been You've been
He has been He's been

She has been She's been
It has been It's been
John has been John's been
The car has been The car's been
We have been We've been

They have been They've been

• I've been reading.
• The car's been giving trouble.
• We've been playing tennis for two hours.
How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually
a connection with the present or now. There are basically two uses for
the present perfect continuous tense:
1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that
started in the past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.
I'm tired because I've been running.

past present future
Recent action. Result now.
- 23 -
 I'm tired [now] because I've been running.
 Why is the grass wet [now]? Has it been raining?
 You don't understand [now] because you haven't been listening.
2. An action continuing up to now
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that
started in the past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or
since.
I have been reading for 2 hours.

past present future
Action started in past. Action is continuing now.
 I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.]

 We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.]
 How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.]
 We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]
For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
•We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.
•We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st January,
Monday.
for since
a period of time a point in past time
20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I left school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
- 24 -
• I have been studying for 3 hours.

• I have been watching TV since 7pm.
• Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks.
• Tara hasn't been visiting us since March.
• He has been playing football for a long time.
• He has been living in Bangkok since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect
tenses only.
- 25 -
Past Perfect Tense
I had sung
The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to

use. This tense talks about the "past in the past".
In this lesson we look at:
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?

The structure of the past perfect tense is:
+ auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb

subject
conjugated in simple past tense past participle

had V3
For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between
the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange
the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with
the past perfect tense:

+ I had finished my work.
+ You had stopped before me.
- She had not gone to school.
- We had not left.
? Had you arrived?
? Had they eaten dinner?
When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often

contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
- 26 -
When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the
subject and auxiliary verb:
I'd
I had
you had you'd
he had he'd
she had she'd
it had it'd
we had we'd
they had they'd
The 'd contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For
example, we'd can mean:
 We had
or
 We would
But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:
 We had arrived (past participle)
 We would arrive (base)
It is always clear from the context.
- 27 -
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?
The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another
action in the past. This is the past in the past. For example:
•The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train
had left.
The train had left when we arrived.

past present future
Train leaves in past at

9am.
9 9.15

We arrive in past at

9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
 I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten.
 They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
 I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before.
 "Mary wasn't at home when I arrived."
"Really? Where had she gone?"
You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the
present perfect tense, but instead of the time being now the time
is past.
past perfect tense present perfect tense
had | have |
done | done |
>| >|
past now future past now future
- 28 -
For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The
stationmaster says to you:
"You are too late. The train has left."

Later, you tell your friends:
"We were too late. The train had left."
We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like
said, told, asked, thought, wondered:
He told us that the train had left.

I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.
I wondered if I had been there before.
I asked them why they had not finished.
- 29 -
Future Perfect Tense
I will have sung
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use.
The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future.
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?

The structure of the future perfect tense is:
auxiliary verb auxiliary verb

+ + + main verb
subject WILL HAVE
invariable invariable past participle

will have V3
Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:
auxiliary auxiliary main

subject
verb verb verb
+ I will have finished by 10am.

me by
+ You will have forgotten
then.
- She will not have gone to school.
- We will not have left.
? Will you have arrived?
? Will they have received it?
- 30 -
In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject
and will. Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:
I'll have I'll've

I will have
you will have you'll have you'll've
he will have he'll have he'll've
she will have she'll have she'll've
it will have it'll have it'll've
we will have we'll have we'll've
they will have they'll have they'll've
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.
How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?

The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another
action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:
 The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at
9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.
The train will have left when you arrive.

past present future
Train leaves in future

at 9am.
You arrive in future at

9.15am.
- 31 -
Look at some more examples:
 You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.
 They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long
time.
 "Mary won't be at home when you arrive."
"Really? Where will she have gone?"
You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present
perfect tense, but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in
the future:
present perfect tense future perfect tense
| will |
have | have |
done | done |
>| >|
- 32 -
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
I will have been singing
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:
auxiliary
auxiliary auxiliary
+ verb + + + main verb
subject verb HAVE verb BE
WILL
past present
invariable invariable
participle participle
will have been base + ing
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert

not between will and have. For question sentences, we exchange the
subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future perfect
continuous tense:
auxiliary auxiliary auxiliary

subject
verb verb verb
main verb

for four
+ I will have been working
hours.
for two
+ You will have been travelling
days.
- She will not have been using the car.
- We will not have been waiting long.
? Will you have been playing football?
? Will they have been watching TV?
- 33 -
When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we
often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:00000
I'll
I will
you will you'll
he will he'll
she will she'll
it will it'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we

contract with won't, like this:
I won't
I will not
you will not you won't
he will not he won't
she will not she won't
How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action
before some point in the future. Look at these examples:
I will have been working here for ten years next week.
 He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for 24
hours.
- 34 -
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I had been singing
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
auxiliary verb auxiliary

+ + + main verb
subject HAVE verb BE
conjugated in past present
simple past tense participle participle

had been base + ing
For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert

not after the first auxiliary verb. For question sentences, we exchange
the subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences
with the past perfect continuous tense:
auxiliary auxiliary
subject main verb
verb verb
+ I had been working.
+ You had been playing tennis.
- It had not been working well.
- We had not been expecting her.
? Had you been drinking?
? Had they been waiting long?
- 35 -
When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often
contract the subject and first auxiliary verb:
I'd been
I had been
you had been you'd been
he had he'd been
she had been she'd been
it had been it'd been
we had been we'd been
they had been they'd been
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it
expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the
past. For example:
•Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram
had been waiting for two hours.
Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived.

past present future
Ram starts waiting in

past at 9am.
9 11
I arrive in past at

11am.
- 36 -
Here are some more examples:
 John was very tired. He had been running.
 I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.
 Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been
running well for a long time.
 Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?
You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the
present perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being now
the time is past.
past perfect continuous present perfect continuous

tense tense
had | | | have |
been | | | been |
doing | | | doing |
>>>> | | | >>>> |
For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you:
 "I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours."
Later, you tell your friends:
 "Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours."
- 37 -
Future Continuous Tense
I will be singing
How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?

The structure of the future continuous tense is:
auxiliary verb auxiliary verb

+ + + main verb
subject WILL BE
invariable invariable present participle

will be base + ing
For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not

between will and be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject
and will. Look at these example sentences with the future continuous
tense:
auxiliary auxiliary
subject main verb
verb verb
+ I will be working at 10am.

on a beach
+ You will be lying
tomorrow.
- She will not be using the car.
dinner at
- We will not be having
home.
? Will you be playing football?
? Will they be watching TV?
- 38 -
I'll
I will
When we use the
future continuous you will you'll
tense in speaking, we he will he'll
often contract the she will she'll
subject and will: it will it'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
I won't
For spoken negative I will not
sentences in the future
you will not you won't
continuous tense, we
contract with won't, like he will not he won't
this: she will not she won't
We sometimes use shall instead of will,

especially for I and we.
- 39 -
How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?
The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment
in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have
finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm
and stop work at 6pm:
At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.
past present future
At 4pm, I will be in the

middle of working.
When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or
understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
 I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.
 They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
 What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
 What will you be doing when I arrive?
 She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
 We 'll be having dinner when the film starts.
 Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.
- 40 -
Determiners
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically
similar. They all come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we
cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun phrase.
Articles:
 a, an, the
Possessives:
 my, your, his, her, our, their
Other determiners:
each, every
 either, neither
 any, some, no
 much, many; more, most
 little, less, least
 few, fewer, fewest
 what, whatever; which, whichever
 both, half, all
 several
 enough
- 41 -
Determiners: A, An or The?
When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "a dog"? (On this page
we talk only about singular, countable nouns.)
The and a/an are called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and
"indefinite" like this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
the a, an
We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular.

We use "indefinite" to mean not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" is general.
When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we
are talking about one thing in general, we use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky there is 1 moon and millions of stars.
So normally we could say:
• I saw the moon last night.

• I saw a star last night.
a, an
the
•The capital of France is Paris. •I was born in a town.

•I have found the book that I lost. •John had an omelette for
•Have you cleaned the car? lunch.
•There are six eggs in the fridge. •James Bond ordered a drink.
•Please switch off the TV when you •We want to buy an umbrella.
finish. •Have you got a pen?
- 42 -
Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same word. It depends
on the situation. Look at these examples:
• We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particular umbrella.)
• Where is the umbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We are looking
for our umbrella, a particular umbrella.)
This little story should help you understand the difference between the
and a, an:
A man and a woman were walking in Oxford Street. The woman saw a
dress that she liked in a shop. She asked the man if he could buy the
dress for her. He said: "Do you think the shop will accept a cheque? I
don't have a credit card."
Determiners: Each, Every
Each and every have similar but not always identical meanings.
Each = every one separately
Every = each, all
Sometimes, each and every have the same meaning:

• Prices go up each year.
• Prices go up every year.
But often they are not exactly the same.

Each expresses the idea of 'one by one'. It emphasizes individuality.
Every is half-way between each and all. It sees things or people as

singular, but in a group or in general.
Consider the following:
 Every artist is sensitive.
 Each artist sees things differently.
 Every soldier saluted as the President arrived.
 The President gave each soldier a medal.
- 43 -
Each can be used in front of the verb:
The soldiers each received a medal.
Each can be followed by 'of':
 The President spoke to each of the soldiers.
 He gave a medal to each of them.
Every cannot be used for 2 things. For 2 things, each can be used:
 He was carrying a suitcase in each hand.
Every is used to say how often something happens:
 There is a plane to Bangkok every day.
 The bus leaves every hour.
Verbs with each and every are always conjugated in the singular.
Determiners: Some, Any

Some = a little, a few or a small number or amount
Any = one, some or all
Usually, we use some in positive (+) sentences and any in negative
(-) and question (?) sentences.
some any example

I have
+ some I have $10.
money.
I don't
I don't have $1 and I don't have $10 and
- have any
I don't have $1,000,000. I have $0.
money.
Do you
? have any Do you have $1 or $10 or $1,000,000?
money?
In general, we use something/anything and somebody/anybody in the

same way as some/any.
- 44 -
 He needs some stamps.

 I must go. I have some homework to do.
 I'm thirsty. I want something to drink.
 I can see somebody coming.
 He doesn't need any stamps.

 I can stay. I don't have any homework to do.
 I'm not thirsty. I don't want anything to drink.
 I can't see anybody coming.
 Does he need any stamps?

 Do you have any homework to do?
 Do you want anything to drink?
 Can you see anybody coming?
We use any in a positive sentence when the real sense is negative.
 I refused to give them any money. (I did not give them any money)
 She finished the test without any difficulty. (she did not have any
difficulty)
Sometimes we use some in a question, when we expect a positive

YES answer. (We could say that it is not a real question, because we
think we know the answer already.)
 Would you like some more tea?

 Could I have some sugar, please?
- 45 -
English Pronouns
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a
pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours,
themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to
repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
 Do you like the President? I don't like the President. The President
is too pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:
 Do you like the President? I don't like him. He is too pompous.
Personal Pronouns
This summary of personal pronouns includes possessive adjectives for
convenience and comparison.
pronouns
possessive
subj obj possessive reflexive
number person gender* adjectives
1st m/f I me mine myself my
2nd m/f you you yours yourself your
singular m he him his himself his
3rd f she her hers herself her
n it it its itself its
1st m/f we us ours ourselves our
yourselve
plural 2nd m/f you you yours your
s
themselve
3rd m/f/n they them theirs their
s
* m=male f=female n=neuter
- 46 -
Examples:
subject She likes homework.

The teacher gave me some
object
homework.
pronoun
possessive This homework is yours.
reflexive John did the homework himself.
The teacher corrected our

possessive adjective
homework.
- 47 -
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we

include pronouns and noun phrases.) An adjective "qualifies" or
"modifies" a noun (a big dog). Adjectives can be used before a noun (I
like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard). We can often use
two or more adjectives together (a beautiful young French lady).
It is sometimes said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun. This is
because, very often, if we use the precise noun we don't need an
adjective. For example, instead of saying "a large, impressive house"
(2 adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say "a mansion" (1 noun).
Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. before the noun

2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell,
taste)
adj. noun verb adj.
1 I like big cars.
2 My car is big
In this lesson we look at the position of adjectives in a sentence:
- 48 -
Adjective Before Noun
We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:

 I like big black dogs.
 She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1. The general order is: opinion, fact:
 a nice French car (not a French nice car)

("Opinion" is what you think about something. "Fact" is what is definitely
true about something.)
2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour,
material, origin:
 a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table

3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:
articles (a, the)
 possessives (my, your...)

 demonstratives (this, that...)
 quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)
 numbers (one, two, three)
Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives:
noun
adjectives
deter- opinion fact

miner
age shape colour
two nice old round red candles
When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with "and":
• Newspapers are usually black and white.
• She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress. 0
- 49 -
The rules on this page are for the normal, "natural" order of adjectives.
But these rules are not rigid, and you may sometimes wish to change the
order for emphasis. Consider the following conversations:
Conversation 1
A "I want to buy a round table."
B "Do you want a new round table or an old round table?"
Conversation 2
A "I want to buy an old table".
B "Do you want a round old table or a square old table?
Adjective After Verb
We can use an adjective after certain verbs. Even though the adjective
comes after the verb, it does not describe the verb. It describes the
subject of the verb (usually a noun or pronoun).
Look at the examples opposite:
subject verb adjective
 Ram is English.
 Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
Is it getting dark?
The examination did not seem difficult.
Your friend looks nice.
This towel feels damp.
That new film doesn't sound very interesting.
Dinner smells good tonight.
his milk tastes sour.
- 50 -
Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if
they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some
ways and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives
to describe the differences.
In the example opposite, "bigger" is the comparative form of the
adjective "big":
We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not
three or more things).
A A
The first A is bigger than the second A.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives,

and then at how we use them:
- 51 -
Formation of Comparative Adjectives
There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective: short and
long adjectives
Short adjectives
old, fast
 1-syllable adjectives
happy, easy
 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y
Normal rule: add "-er" old > older
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r late > later
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel,

big > bigger
consonant, double the last consonant
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i happy > happier
Long adjectives
modern,
 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y pleasant
expensive,
 all adjectives of 3 or more syllables intellectual
modern > more

modern
Normal rule: use "more"
expensive >
more expensive
- 52 -
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':
 quiet > quieter/more quiet
 clever > cleverer/more clever
 narrow > narrower/more narrow
 simple > simpler/more simple
Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:
 good > better
 well (healthy) > better
 bad > worse
 far > farther/further
Use of Comparative Adjectives
We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or

10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things).
Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than".
 John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John.

 America is big. But Russia is bigger.
 I want to have a more powerful computer.
 Is French more difficult than English?
If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them
as shown in the table next page:
Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things

(not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group
of things.
 Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains.
Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still
comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains).
- 53 -
Earth Mars
Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790 Mars is smaller than Earth.

Distance from Sun 150 228 Mars is more distant from the
(million km) Sun.
Length of day A day on Mars is slightly longer
24 25
(hours) than a day on Earth.
Mars has more moons than
Moons 1 2
Earth.
Surface temperature
22 -23 Mars is colder than Earth.
(°C)
Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a

quality. We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality
of one thing in a group of things.
In the example opposite, "biggest" is the superlative form of the
adjective "big":
We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more

things (not two things).
A C
A is the
biggest.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make superlative adjectives,

and then at how we use them:
- 54 -
Formation of Superlative Adjectives
As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a
superlative adjective:
short adjectives: add "-est"
long adjectives: use "most" : We also usually add 'the' at the
beginning.
Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add "-est" old > the oldest

Variation: if the adjective ends in
late > the latest
-e, just add -st
consonant, vowel, consonant, big > the biggest
double the last consonant
happy > the happiest
-y, change the y to i
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in
modern, pleasant
-y
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
modern > the most modern

Normal rule: use "most"
expensive > the most expensive
- 55 -
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':
 quiet > the quietest/most quiet
 clever > the cleverest/most clever
 narrow > the narrowest/most narrow
 simple > the simplest/most simple
Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:
 good > the best
 bad > the worst
 far > the furthest
Use of Superlative Adjectives
We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three

or more things. Look at these examples:
 John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.
 Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the
biggest.
 Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use
superlative adjectives as shown in the table next page:
When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":

 England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest)
 My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most
generous)
- 56 -
Earth Mars Jupiter
Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790 142,800 Jupiter is the biggest.
Distance from Jupiter is the most

150 228 778
Sun (million km) distant from the Sun.
Length of day Jupiter has the

24 25 10
(hours) shortest day.
Jupiter has the most
Moons 1 2 16
moons.
Surface temp.
22 -23 -150 Jupiter is the coldest.
(°C)
- 57 -
Nouns
It's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things" (and
verbs are "actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb).
Or happiness. Happiness (noun) is something you want (verb). Or
human being. A human being (noun) is something you are (verb).
What are Nouns?
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some
examples:
 person: man, woman, teacher, John, Mary
 place: home, office, town, countryside, America
 thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey
The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" is a
noun but can also be a verb.
Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:
1. Ending
2. Position
3. Function
1. Noun Ending
There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for
example:
 -ity > nationality
 -ment > appointment
 -ness > happiness
 -ation > relation
 -hood > childhood
But this is not is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the
noun "spoonful" ends in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.
2. Position in Sentence
We can often recognize a noun by its position in the sentence.
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the,
this, my, such):
 a relief
 an afternoon
 the doctor
 this word
 my house
 such stupidity
- 58 -
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:
 a great relief
 a peaceful afternoon
 the tall, Indian doctor
 this difficult word
 my brown and white house
 such crass stupidity
3. Function in a Sentence
Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:
 subject of verb: Doctors work hard.
 object of verb: He likes coffee.
 subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students.
But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a
pronoun or a phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is
"doctor" but the subject is "My doctor".
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count.
For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or
more pens. Here are some more countable nouns:
 dog, cat, animal, man, person
 bottle, box, litre
 coin, note, dollar
 cup, plate, fork
 table, chair, suitcase, bag
Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
 My dog is playing.
 My dogs are hungry.
We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:
 A dog is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this
with it:
 I want an orange. (not I want orange.)

 Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle
- 59 -
When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:
 I like oranges.
 Bottles can break.
We can use some and any with countable nouns:

 I've got some dollars.
 Have you got any pens?
We can use a few and many with countable nouns:

 I've got a few dollars.
 I haven't got many pens.
"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can count

people. There is one person here. There are three people here.
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide
into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we
cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but
we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns:
 music, art, love, happiness

 advice, information, news
 furniture, luggage
 rice, sugar, butter, water
 electricity, gas, power
 money, currency
We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular
verb. For example:
 This news is very important.

 Your luggage looks heavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable
nouns. We cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a
something of:
 a piece of news
 a bottle of water
 a grain of rice
- 60 -
We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:
 I've got some money.
 Have you got any rice?
We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:
 I've got a little money.
 I haven't got much rice.
Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".
Countable Uncountable Drinks (coffee, water,

dollar money orange juice) are
usually uncountable.
song music But if we are thinking of
suitcase luggage a cup or a glass, we
can say (in a
table Furniture restaurant, for
battery electricity example):
 Two teas and one
bottle wine
coffee please.
report information
tip advice
journey travel
job work
view scenery
- 61 -
Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable
Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a
change of meaning.
Uncountable
Countable
There are two hairs in I don't have much
hair
my coffee! hair.
Close the curtain.
There are two lights in
light There's too much
our bedroom.
light!
It's difficult to work
Shhhhh! I thought I
noise when there is too
heard a noise.
much noise.
Have you got a paper I want to draw a
to read? (= paper picture. Have you got
newspaper) some paper?
Our house has seven Is there room for me
room
rooms. to sit here?
We had a great time Have you got time for
time
at the party. a coffee?
Macbeth is one of work I have no money. I
Shakespeare's need work!
greatest works.
- 62 -
Proper Nouns (Names)
A proper noun is the special word (or name) that we use for a person,
place or organization, like John, Marie, London, France or Sony. A
name is a noun, but a very special noun—a proper noun. Proper nouns
have special rules.
common noun proper noun
man, boy John

woman, girl Mary
country, town England, London
company Ford, Sony
shop, restaurant Maceys, McDonalds
month, day of the week January, Sunday
book, film War & Peace, Titanic
Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns
We always use a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun
(name). This includes names of people, places, companies, days of the
week and months. For example:
 They like John. (not *They like john.)
 I live in England.
 She works for Sony.
 The last day in January is a Monday.
 We saw Titanic in the Odeon Cinema
- 63 -
Proper Nouns without THE
We do not use “the” with names of people. For example:
Bill (not *the Bill)
first names Hilary
Clinton
surnames
Gates
full names Hilary Gates
We do not normally use “the” with names of companies. For example:
 Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishCLUB.net
 General Motors, Air France, British Airways
 Warner Brothers, Brown & Son Ltd
We do not normally use “the” for shops, banks, hotels etc named after
a founder or other person (with -’s or -s). For example:
Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys

shops
banks Barclays Bank
hotels, restaurants Steve’s Hotel, Joe’s Café, McDonalds
churches, cathedrals St John’s Church, St Peter’s Cathedral
We do not normally use “the” with names of places. For example:
Washington (not *the Washington), Paris, Tokyo

towns
states, regions Texas, Kent, Eastern Europe
countries England, Italy, Brazil
continents Asia, Europe, North America
islands Corsica
mountains Everest
- 64 -
Exception! If a country name includes “States”, “Kingdom”, “Republic”
etc, we use “the”:
the United States, the US, the United States of America, the
states USA
kingdom the United Kingdom, the UK
republic the French Republic
We do not use “the” with “President/Doctor /Mr etc + Name”:
President Bush (not *the President Bush)

the president, the king
the captain, the
Captain Kirk, Detective Colombo
detective
the doctor, the
Doctor Well, Dr Well, Professor Dolittle
professor
my uncle, your aunt Uncle Jack, Aunt Jill
Mr Gates (not *the Mr Gates), Mrs Clinton, Miss

Black
Look at these example sentences:

 I wanted to speak to the doctor.
 I wanted to speak to Doctor Brown.
 Who was the president before President Kennedy?
We do not use “the” with “Lake/Mount + Name”:
Look at this example sentence:
 We live beside Lake Victoria. We have a fantastic view across the lake.
the lake Lake Victoria
the mount Mount Everest
- 65 -
We do not normally use “the” for roads, streets, squares, parks etc:
streets etc Oxford Street, Trenholme Road, Fifth Avenue
squares etc Trafalgar Square, Oundle Place, Piccadilly Circus

parks etc Central Park, Kew Gardens
Many big, important buildings have names made of two words (for
example, Kennedy Airport). If the first word is the name of a person or
place, we do not normally use “the”:
people Kennedy Airport, Alexander Palace, St Paul’s Cathedral
places Heathrow Airport, Waterloo Station, Edinburgh Castle
Proper Nouns with THE
We normally use "the" for country names that include “States”, “Kingdom”,
“Republic” etc:
States the United States of America/the USA
Kingdom the United Kingdom/the UK

Republic the French Republic
We normally use “the” for names of canals, rivers, seas and oceans:
canals the Suez Canal
rivers the River Nile, the Nile

seas the Mediterranean Sea, the Mediterranean
oceans the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific
- 66 -
We normally use “the” for plural names of people and places:
the Clintons
people (families, for example)
countries the Philippines, the United States
island groups the Virgin Islands, the British Isles
mountain ranges the Himalayas, the Alps
Look at these sentences:

 I saw the Clintons today. It was Bill’s birthday.
 Trinidad is the largest island in the West Indies.
 Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.
We normally use “the” with the following sorts of names:
hotels, restaurants the Ritz Hotel, the Peking Restaurant
banks the National Westminster Bank

cinemas, theatres the Royal Theatre, the ABC Cinema
museums the British Museum, the National Gallery
buildings the White House, the Crystal Palace
newspapers the Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Post
organisations the United Nations, the BBC, the European Union
We normally use “the” for names made with “…of…”:
 the Tower of London

 the Gulf of Siam
 the Tropic of Cancer
 the London School of Economics
 the Bank of France
 the Statue of Liberty
- 67 -
Possessive 's
When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or

something, we usually add 's to a singular noun and an apostrophe ' to a
plural noun, for example:
 the boy's ball (one boy)
 the boys' ball (two or more boys)
Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure is
influenced by the possessor and not the possessed.
one ball more than one ball

one boy
the boy's ball the boy's balls

more than one boy
the boys' ball the boys' balls
Although we can use of to show possession, it is more usual to use

possessive 's. The following phrases have the same meaning, but #2
is more usual and natural:
1. the boyfriend of my sister
2. my sister's boyfriend
The structure can be used for a whole phrase:

 the man next door's mother (the mother of the man next door)
 the Queen of England's poodles (the poodles of the Queen of
England)
 the President of the USA's secretary (the secretary of the President of
the USA)
- 68 -
Proper Nouns (Names)
We very often use possessive 's with names:

 This is Mary's car.
 Where is Ram's telephone?
 Who took Anthony's pen?
 I like Tara's hair.
When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singular noun,
and add 's:
 This is Charles's chair.
But it is possible (especially with older, classical names) to just add the
apostrophe ':
 Who was Jesus' father?
Irregular Plurals
Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man > men). To
show possession, we usually add 's to the plural form of these nouns:
singular noun plural noun
my child's dog my children's dog
the man's work the men's work
the mouse's cage the mice's cage
a person's clothes people's clothes
- 69 -
Main Verbs
Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".
Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are
thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in several ways:
Transitive and intransitive verbs
A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An

intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like
speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples:
transitive:
 I saw an elephant.
 We are watching TV.
 He speaks English.
intransitive:
 He has arrived.
 John goes to school.
 She speaks fast.
- 70 -
Linking verbs
A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject
to what is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality
(=) or a change to a different state or place (>). Linking verbs are always
intransitive (but not all intransitive verbs are linking verbs).
 Mary is a teacher. (mary = teacher)

 Tara is beautiful. (tara = beautiful)
 That sounds interesting. (that = interesting)
 The sky became dark. (the sky > dark)
 The bread has gone bad. (bread > bad)
Dynamic and stative verbs

Some verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used
with continuous tenses. Other verbs describe state (non-action, a
situation). They are called "stative", and cannot normally be used with
continuous tenses (though some of them can be used with continuous
tenses with a change in meaning).
dynamic verbs (examples):
 hit, explode, fight, run, go
stative verbs (examples):

 be
 like, love, prefer, wish
 impress, please, surprise
 hear, see, sound
 belong to, consist of, contain, include, need
 appear, resemble, seem
Regular and irregular verbs

This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real
difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different
endings for their past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs,
the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed.
For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is
variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.
- 71 -
regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
 look, looked, looked

 work, worked, worked
irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
 buy, bought, bought

 cut, cut, cut
 do, did, done
One way to think of regular and irregular verbs is like this: all verbs are
irregular and the so-called regular verbs are simply one very large group
of irregular verbs.
Often the above divisions can be mixed. For example, one verb could be
irregular, transitive and dynamic; another verb could be regular, transitive
and stative.
- 72 -
Here are lists of regular verbs and irregular verbs.
Regular Verbs
English regular verbs change their form very little (unlike irregular
verbs). The past tense and past participle of regular verbs end in -ed,
for example:
work, worked, worked
But you should note the following points:
1. Some verbs can be both regular and irregular, for example:
learn, learned, learned
learn, learnt, learnt
2. Some verbs change their meaning depending on whether they are
regular or irregular, for example "to hang":
hang, hanged, to kill or die, by dropping with a rope

regular hanged around the neck
hang, hung, to fix something (for example, a picture) at

irregular
hung the top so that the lower part is free
3. The present tense of some regular verbs is the same as the past
tense of some irregular verbs:
found, founded, founded

regular
irregular find, found, found
- 73 -
Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs are an important feature of English. We use irregular verbs

a lot when speaking, less when writing. Of course, the most famous
English verb of all, the verb "to be", is irregular.
What is the difference between regular verbs and irregular verbs?
Base Past Past

Form Simple Participle
With regular verbs, the rule is simple...
finish finished finished

The past simple and past participle
stop stopped stopped
always end in -ed:
work worked worked
But with irregular verbs, there is no rule...

Sometimes the verb changes
sing sang sung
completely:
Sometimes there is "half" a change: buy bought bought
Sometimes there is no change: cut cut cut
One good way to learn irregular verbs is to try sorting them into groups, as
above.
If in doubt, a good dictionary can tell you if a verb is regular or irregular.
- 74 -
Adverbs
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. An adverb

"qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). But adverbs can
also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs
(It works very well).
Many different kinds of word are called adverbs. We can usually
recognise an adverb by its:
1. Function (Job)
2. Form
3. Position
1. Function
The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information about)
verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. In the following examples, the
adverb is in bold and the word that it modifies is in italics.
 Modify a verb:
- John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
- Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
- She never smokes. (When does she smoke?)
Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome.
Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly.
But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
Modify a whole sentence:
- Obviously, I can't know everything.
Modify a prepositional phrase:
- It's immediately inside the door.
2. Form
Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the
adjective. Here are some examples:
quickly, softly, strongly, honestly, interestingly
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. "Friendly", for example, is
an adjective.
Some adverbs have no particular form, for example:
well, fast, very, never, always, often, still
- 75 -
3. Position
Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence:
Front (before the subject):
- Now we will study adverbs.
Middle (between the subject and the main verb):

- We often study adverbs.
End (after the verb or object):

- We study adverbs carefully.
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Frequency answer the question

"How often?" or "How frequently?" They tell
us how often somebody does something. 100% always
Adverbs of frequency come before the main usually
verb (except the main verb "to be"):
frequently
We usually go shopping on Saturday.
I have often done that. often
She is always late.
50% sometimes
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently Occasionally
and usually can also go at the beginning or
end of a sentence: Rarely
Sometimes they come and stay with us. Seldom

I play tennis occasionally.
hardly ever
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of 0% never
a sentence (often with "very"):
We see them rarely.
John eats meat very seldom.
- 76 -
English Prepositions List
There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small
number when you think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs
etc). Prepositions are important words. We use individual prepositions
more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of,
to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a
short list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. Many of
these prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to a
dictionary for precise meaning and usage.
• aboard • at • concerning • in • outside • to • with
• about • before • considering • inside • over • toward • within
• above • behind • despite • into • past • towards • without
• across • below • down • like • per • under
• after • beneath • during • minus • plus • underneath
• against • beside • except • near • regarding • unlike
• along • besides • excepting • of • round • until
• amid • between • excluding • off • save • up
• anti • beyond • following • on • since • upon
• around • but • for • onto • than • versus
• as • by • from • opposite • through • via
English Preposition Rule
There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most
rules, this rule has no exceptions.
Rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
noun (dog, money, love)

proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
pronoun (you, him, us)
noun group (my first job)
gerund (swimming)
A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a
preposition by a verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really a
gerund or verb in noun form.
Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb?
That should be impossible, according to the above rule:
I would like to go now.
She used to smoke.
- 77 -
Subject + verb preposition "noun"
The food is on the table.

She lives in Japan.
Tara is looking for you.
The letter is under your blue book.
Pascal is used to English people.
She isn't used to working.
I ate before coming.
Answer to Quick Quiz: In these sentences, "to" is not a preposition. It

is part of the infinitive ("to go", "to smoke").
Prepositions of Place:
at, in, on
In general, we use:
 at for a POINT
 in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
 on for a SURFACE
at in on
POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE
at the corner in the garden on the wall
at the bus stop in London on the ceiling
at the door in France on the door
at the top of the page in a box on the cover
at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor
at the entrance in my wallet on the carpet
at the crossroads in a building on the menu
at the entrance in a car on a page
- 78 -
 Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.

 The shop is at the end of the street.
 My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two
hours late.
 When will you arrive at the office?
 Do you work in an office?
 I have a meeting in New York.
 Do you live in Japan?
 Jupiter is in the Solar System.
 The author's name is on the cover of the book.
 There are no prices on this menu.
 You are standing on my foot.
 There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
 I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.
Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these

standard expressions:
at in on
at home in a car on a bus
at work in a taxi on a train
at school in a helicopter on a plane
at university in a boat on a ship
at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike
at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant
at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television
at the side in a row on the left, on the right
at reception in Oxford Street on the way
- 79 -
 I have a meeting at 9am.

 The shop closes at midnight.
 Jane went home at lunchtime.
 In England, it often snows in December.
 Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
 There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
 Do you work on Mondays?
 Her birthday is on 20 November.
 Where will you be on New Year's Day?
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard

expressions:
Expression Example
at night The stars shine at night.
at the weekend I don't usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time We finished the test at the same time.
at present He's not home at present. Try later.
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common
expressions:
in on
in the morning on Tuesday morning
in the mornings on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoons
in the evening(s) on Monday evening
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
 I went to London last June. (not in last June)
 He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
 I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
 We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)
- 80-
Questions
What is a question?
A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a
sentence that asks for information.
I like EnglishClub.com.
Statement:
Question: Do you like EnglishClub.com?
A written question in English always ends with a question mark:

?
In this lesson we look at basic questions in English.
Basic Question Structure
The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:

auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
auxiliary verb subject main verb

Do you like Mary?
Are they playing football?
Will Anthony go to Tokyo?
Have you seen ET?
Exception!
For the verb be in simple present and simple past, we do not use an
auxiliary verb. We simply reverse the positions of be and subject:
He is German.
Statement:
Question: Is he German?
- 81 -
Basic Question Types
There are 3 basic types of question:

1.Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No")
2.Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is "Information")
3.Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question")
1. Yes/No Questions
Answer
auxiliary verb subject main verb
Yes or No
Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.
Can you drive? No, I can't.
Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.
Did they go home? No, they didn't.
Exception! verb be simple present and simple past
Is Anne French? Yes, she is.
Was Ram at home? No, he wasn't.
2. Question Word Questions
question auxiliary Answer

subject main verb
word verb Information
Where do you live? In Paris.
When will we have lunch? At 1pm.
She met
Who did she meet?
Ram.
Because
Why hasn't Tara done it?
she can't.
Where is Bombay? In India.
How was she? Very well.
- 82 -
3. Choice Questions
Answer
auxiliary main
subject OR In the
verb verb
question
Coffee,
Do you want tea or coffee?
please.
James
Will we meet John or John.
?
She went
to New
Did she go or to
London York?
London.
your
Is white or black? It's black.
car
Were they $15 or $50? $15.
These pages show the three basic types of question. There are
other types of question, for example
- 83 -
Tag Questions
You speak English, don't you?
A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement

followed by a mini-question. The whole sentence is a "tag question",
and the mini-question at the end is called a "question tag".
A "tag" is something small that we add to something larger. For example,

the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or washing
instructions is a tag.
We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation.

They mean something like: "Am I right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very
common in English.
The basic structure is:
-
+
negative tag?
Positive statement,
Snow is white, isn't it?
- +
Negative statement, positive tag?
You don't like me, do you?
- 84 -
Look at these examples with positive statements:
positive statement [+] negative tag [-] notes:
personal
pronoun
main
subject auxiliary auxiliary not (same
verb
as
subject)
You are coming, are n't you?
We have finished, have n't we?
You do like coffee, do n't you?
You (do)
You like coffee, do n't you?
like...
won't = will
They will help, wo n't they?
not
I can come, can 't I?
We must go, must n't we?
He should try harder, should n't he?
You are English, are n't you? no

auxiliary
for main
verb be
John was there, was n't he?
present &
past
- 85 -
Look at these examples with negative statements:
negative statement [-] positive tag [+]
personal
pronoun
subject auxiliary main verb auxiliary
(same as
subject)
It is n't raining, is it?
We have never seen that, have we?
You do n't like coffee, do you?
They will not help, will they?
They wo n't report us, will they?
I can never do it right, can I?
We must n't tell her, must we?
He should n't drive so fast, should he?
You are n't English, are you?
John was not there, was he?
- 86 -
Some special cases:
aren't I (not amn't I)

I am right, aren't I?
You have to go, don't you? you (do) have to go...
I have been answering, haven't I? use first auxiliary
treat statements with

Nothing came in the post, did it? nothing, nobody etc like
negative statements
Let's go, shall we? let's = let us
He'd better do it, hadn't he? he had better (no auxiliary)
Here are some mixed examples:
 But you don't really love her, do you?

 This will work, won't it?
 Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
 But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
 We'd never have known, would we?
 The weather's bad, isn't it?
 You won't be late, will you?
 Nobody knows, do they?
- 87 -
Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help,
starting with a negative statement. This is quite a friendly/polite way of
making a request. For example, instead of saying "Where is the police
station?" (not very polite), or "Do you know where the police station is?"
(slightly more polite), we could say: "You wouldn't know where the police
station is, would you?" Here are some more examples:
 You don't know of any good jobs, do you?

 You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?
 You haven't got $10 to lend me, have you?
Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of
our voice. With rising intonation, it sounds like a real question. But if our
intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a real
answer:
intonation

You don't know where my wallet is, do you? / rising real question
not a real
It's a beautiful view, isn't it? \ falling
question
A question tag is the "mini-question" at the end. A tag question is the

whole sentence.
How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No.

Sometimes we may repeat the tag and reverse it (..., do they? Yes, they
do). Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages,
an opposite system of answering is used, and non-native English
speakers sometimes answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of
confusion!
- 88 -
Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation. Your
answer reflects the real facts, not (necessarily) the question.
For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these

questions, and the correct answers:
correct

tag question answer
Snow is white, isn't it? Yes (it is). the answer is
the same in
both cases - but notice the
Snow isn't white, is it? Yes it is! because change of
snow IS stress when
WHITE! the answerer
Snow is black, isn't it? No it isn't! the answer is does not
the same in agree with
both cases - the
because questioner
Snow isn't black, is it? No (it isn't).
snow IS NOT
BLACK!
In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is

it?" with "Yes" (meaning "Yes, I agree with you"). This is the wrong
answer in English!
Here are some more examples, with correct answers:
 The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.
 The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.
 The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!
 Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
 Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!
 Men don't have babies, do they? No.
 The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.
- 89 -
Question tags with imperatives
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders),

but the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct
answer. We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will, would for
orders.
imperative + question tag notes:

invitation Take a seat, won't you? polite
Help me, can you? quite friendly
Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would
order quite polite
you?
Do it now, will you? less polite
with negative imperatives only
Don't forget, will you?
will is possible
Same-way question tags
Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or

negative-positive, it is sometime possible to use a positive-positive or
negative-negative structure. We use same-way question tags to express
interest, surprise, anger etc, and not to make real questions.
 So you're having a baby, are you? That's wonderful!

 She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
 So you think that's amusing, do you? Think again.
Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:
 So you don't like my looks, don't you?
- 90 -
Active Voice, Passive Voice
There are two special forms for verbs called voice:

1. Active voice
2. Passive voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use
most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active
voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:
subject verb object

>
active
Cats eat fish.
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject
receives the action of the verb:
subject verb object

<
passive
Fish are eaten by cats.
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
subject verb object

active Everybody drinks water.

passive Water is drunk by everybody.
- 91 -
Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is
the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this
lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and
how to conjugate it.
Construction of the Passive Voice
The structure of the passive voice is very simple:
subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)
The main verb is always in its past participle form.
main verb (past

subject auxiliary verb (to be)
participle)
Water is drunk by everyone.
100 are by this
employed
people company.
I am paid in euro.
We are not paid in dollars.
Are they paid in yen?
Use of the Passive Voice
We use the passive when:

 we want to make the active object more important
 we do not know the active subject
subject verb object

give importance to
active object by Lee Harvey
President Kennedy was killed
(President Oswald.
Kennedy)
active subject has been s
My wallet ?
unknown tolen.
- 92 -
Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are
eaten by cats).
Look at this sentence:

 He was killed with a gun.
Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not
the active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody
with a gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a
gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".
Conjugation for the Passive Voice
We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in

the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past
participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required
tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:
 present simple: It is made

 present continuous: It is being made
 present perfect: It has been made
- 93 -
Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:
to be washed
infinitive
present It is washed.
past It was washed.
simple
future It will be washed.
conditional It would be washed.
present It is being washed.
past It was being washed.
continuous
future It will be being washed.
conditional It would be being washed.
present It has been washed.
past It had been washed.
perfect simple
future It will have been washed.
conditional It would have been washed.
present It has been being washed.
past It had been being washed.
perfect continuous
future It will have been being washed.
conditional It would have been being washed.
- 94 -
Gerunds (-ing)
Gerunds are sometimes called "verbal nouns".
When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It

is important to understand that they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a
gerund:
 Fishing is fun.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is
usually a present participle:
 Anthony is fishing.
 I have a boring teacher.
In this lesson, we look at the different ways in which we use gerunds.
Many grammarians do not like to use the expression "gerund". That is

because there is sometimes no clear difference between a gerund and a
present participle.
Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement
Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.

Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a
sentence:
 Smoking costs a lot of money.

 I don't like writing.
 My favorite occupation is reading.
But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case,
the whole expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or
complement of the sentence.
 Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.

 I don't like writing letters.
 My favorite occupation is reading detective stories.
- 95 -
Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and
other determiners):
 pointless questioning
 a settling of debts
 the making of Titanic
 his drinking of alcohol
But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a
direct object:
 a settling of debts (not a settling debts)

 Making "Titanic" was expensive.
 The making of "Titanic" was expensive.
Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, "reading" is a

gerund (noun). In the other "reading" is a present participle (verb).
 My favorite occupation is reading.

 My favorite niece is reading.
Gerunds after Prepositions
This is a good rule. It has no exceptions!

If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is
impossible to use an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we
say:
 I will call you after arriving at the office.

 Please have a drink before leaving.
 I am looking forward to meeting you.
 Do you object to working late?
 Tara always dreams about going on holiday.
- 96 -
Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with "real" nouns:
 I will call you after my arrival at the office.

 Please have a drink before your departure.
 I am looking forward to our lunch.
 Do you object to this job?
 Tara always dreams about holidays.
The above rule has no exceptions! So why is "to" followed by "driving" in

1 and by "drive" in 2?
1. I am used to driving on the left.
2. I used to drive on the left.
Gerunds after Certain Verbs
We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is
in the infinitive form, for example:
 I want to eat.
But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:
 I dislike eating.
This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually
followed by a verb in gerund form:
admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest,
dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give
up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone,
practice, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand
- 97 -
 She is considering having a holiday.
 Do you feel like going out?
 I can't help falling in love with you.
 I can't stand not seeing you.
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form
without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love,
prefer, propose, start
 I like to play tennis.

 I like playing tennis.
 It started to rain.
 It started raining.
Gerunds in Passive Sense
We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this
case, the gerund has a passive sense.
 I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)

 This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
 The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)
The expression "something wants doing" is British English.
- 98 -
Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)
Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They
are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare
infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").
Can, Could, Be able to

Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn't
Shall versus Will
Can, Could, Be able to
Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an

auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able
to here for convenience.
Can
Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:
• talk about possibility and ability
• make requests
• ask for or give permission
Structure of Can
subject + can + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

+ I can play tennis.
cannot
- He play tennis.
can't
? Can you play tennis?
- 99 -
Notice that:
 Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.
 The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"). We
cannot say:

Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability

We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to
do:
 She can drive a car.

 John can speak Spanish.
I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)
 Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when
we make present decisions about future ability.
A- Can you help me with my homework? (present)

B- Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)
can: Requests and Orders
We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is

not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to
do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal
(mainly between friends and family):
 Can you make a cup of coffee, please.
 Can you put the TV on.
 Can you come here a minute.
 Can you be quiet!
- 100 -
can: Permission
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:
A- Can I smoke in this room?

B- You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can
for permission is informal.)
Could
Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:
• talk about past possibility or ability
• make requests
Structure of Could
subject + could + main verb
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

+ My grandmother could swim.
could not
- She walk.
couldn't
? Could your grandmother swim?
Notice that:
• Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.
• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive. We cannot say: I could to
play tennis.
- 101 -
Use of Could
could: Past Possibility or Ability

We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we
were able or free to do:
 I could swim when I was 5 years old.

 My grandmother could speak seven languages.
 When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't
open the door.)
 Could you understand what he was saying?
We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in

the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we
use be able to (positive) and couldn't (negative).
Past

General Specific Occasion
My grandmother could A man fell into the river yesterday. The

+
speak Spanish. police were able to save him.
My grandmother A man fell into the river yesterday. The
-
couldn't speak Spanish. police couldn't save him.
could: Requests
We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something.

The use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):
• Could you tell me where the bank is, please?

• Could you send me a catalogue, please?
- 102 -
Be able to
Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply

the verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look
at be able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and
could.
We use be able to:
•to talk about ability
Structure of Be able to
The structure of be able to is:
subject + be + able + infinitive
be able
subject main verb adjective infinitive
+ I am able to drive.
is not
- She able to drive.
isn't
? Are you able to drive?
Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:

• I was able to drive...
• I will be able to drive...
• I have been able to drive...
Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:
• I would like to be able to speak Chinese.
- 103 -
Use of Be able to
be able to: ability

We use be able to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: having
the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able to swim",
it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of
"can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tenses—but "can"
is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past for
ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use
"be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. Look at
these examples:
• I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)
• You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple)
• I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)
Be able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it here for

convenience, because it is often used like "can" and "could", which are
modal auxiliary verbs.
- 104 -
Used to do
We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a
tense. It is a special expression. We use the expression used to do for
the past only.
Do not confuse used to do with the expression be used to. They have
different meanings.
Structure of Used to do
The structure is:
auxiliary main verb

subject did not use infinitive
+ I used to do.
- I did not use to do.
? Did you use to do?
Used or use?
• when there is did in the sentence, we say use to (without d)
• when there is no did in the sentence, we say used to (with d)
Use of Used to do
We use the used to do expression to talk about:

• an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit)
• a situation that was true in the past
I used to smoke.
//////
past present future
- 105 -
Look at these examples.
the present
the past
She used to work in a shop. Now she works in a bank.

He used to watch a lot of TV. Now he doesn't watch much TV.
They used to be married. Now they are divorced.
Now there is a supermarket
There used to be a cinema here.
here.
I didn't use to go swimming. Now I go swimming.
Did you use to smoke?
Be used to
Be used to something
Be used to doing
Be used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say "I am used to
Thailand", it is like saying "I am accustomed to Thailand."
Do not confuse be used to with the special construction used to do.

They have different meanings.
Structure of Be used to
The structure is:
subject + be + used to + object
subject main verb be not used to object

+ I am used to horses.
He is not used to horses.
-
We aren't used to horses.
? Are you used to horses
- 106 -
If the object involves a verb, we use the -ing form:
am not used to being lied to.

I
He is used to working late.
We aren't used to taking the bus.
Are you used to cooking?
Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to? Because we always
use -ing for a verb after a preposition - and the to is a preposition.
Use of Be used to
The be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar
to us or easy for us. For example:
 I am used to driving on the left.

It means that it is not a problem for me to drive on the left of the road. I
am Japanese. In Japan, people drive on the left. Now I am living in the
USA where people drive on the right. Of course, I drive on the right in the
USA, but when I go to Japan it is easy for me to drive on the left because
"I am used to it".
Look at these examples.
 I am used to hard work.

 I am used to working hard.
 He is not used to New York.
 He isn't used to living in New York.
 Are you used to fast food?
 Are you used to eating quickly?
Tenses
We can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the
tense that we need. Look at these examples:
 When we lived in Bangkok, we were used to hot weather.

 I have been used to snakes for a long time.
 You will soon be used to living alone.
- 107 -
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a

sentence.
Here are some example conjunctions:
Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless
We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form
Conjunctions have three basic forms:
 Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although
 Compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
 Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)

for example: so...that
Function
Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":
 Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that
are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for
example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm but I didn't go swimming.
 Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent
clause to a main clause, for example:
- I went swimming, although it was cold.
Position
 Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses
that they join.
 Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the

subordinate clause.
In this lesson we will look in more detail at:
- 108 -
Coordinating Conjunctions
The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":

•and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words
or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A
coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in
importance and structure:
+

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating

conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:
 I like [tea] and [coffee].
 [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses
that they join.
When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is
always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:
I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying
Russian at university.
However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a
comma is not really essential:
 She is kind so she helps people.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:
 He drinks juice, tea, coffee, and milk.
 He drinks juice, tea, coffee and milk.
The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only
two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials
spell:
F A N B O Y S
For And Nor But Or Yet So
- 109 -
Subordinating Conjunctions
The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common

subordinating conjunctions are:
 after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that,
though, till, until, when, where, whether, while
A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to
a main (independent) clause:

+
Look at this example:
subordinate or
main or
dependent clause
independent clause
Ram went swimming although it was raining.
subordinating

conjunction
- 110 -
A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent
clause. It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello!
Although it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing! But a main
or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if
somebody says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming."
A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a

subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a
subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a
main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:
+
Ram went swimming although it was raining.
+

Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.
- 111 -
Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbs
Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word

verbs". Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part
of the English language. Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are
very common, especially in spoken English. A multi-word verb is a
verb like "pick up", "turn on" or "get on with". For convenience, many
people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. These verbs
consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s)
can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make
up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase"—which is why these verbs
are often all called "phrasal verbs".
The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a

verb. "Get" is a verb. "Get up", is also a verb, a different verb. "Get"
and "get up" are two different verbs. They do not have the same
meaning. So you should treat each multi-word verb as a separate
verb, and learn it like any other verb. Look at these examples. You can
see that there are three types of multi-word verb:
look direct your eyes

You must look
single-word verb in a certain
before you leap.
direction
multi- prepositional look take care of Who is looking
word verbs after after the baby?
verbs
phrasal look up search for and You can look up
verbs find information my number in the
in a reference telephone
book directory.
phrasal- look anticipate with
I look forward to
prepositional forward pleasure
meeting you.
verbs to
- 112 -
In this lesson we look at the three types of multi-word verbs, including
phrasal verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Like many grammar books, we divide multi-word verbs into:

 prepositional verbs
 phrasal verbs
 phrasal-prepositional verbs
Other grammars, however, call all multi-word verbs "phrasal verbs".
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus
another word or words. Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as
phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction between three
types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and
phrasal-prepositional verbs. On this page we look at phrasal verbs
proper.
Phrasal verbs are made of:
verb + adverb
Phrasal verbs can be:
 intransitive (no direct object)
 transitive (direct object)
Here are some examples of phrasal verbs:
examples
phrasal
meaning direct
verbs
object
rise from I don't like to get
get up
bed up.
intransitive
phrasal verbs He was late
break cease to
because his car
down function
broke down.
the
We will have to put
put off postpone meeting
transitive off
.
phrasal verbs
my
turn down refuse They turned down
offer.
- 113 -
Separable Phrasal Verbs
When phrasal verbs are transitive (that is, they have a direct object), we
can usually separate the two parts. For example, "turn down" is a
separable phrasal verb. We can say: "turn down my offer" or "turn my
offer down". Look at this table:
my
They turned down offer

.
transitive phrasal
verbs are
separable
They turned my offer down.

However, if the direct object is a pronoun, we have no choice. We must

separate the phrasal verb and insert the pronoun between the two parts.
Look at this example with the separable phrasal verb "switch on":
The
John switched on
radio
The These
John switched on
radio are all
possible
Direct
object John switched it on
pronouns
must go
between
the two
parts of
transitive this is
phrasal John switched on. it not
verbs possible
- 114 -
Separable or inseparable phrasal verbs? Some dictionaries tell you when
phrasal verbs are separable. If a dictionary writes "look (something) up",
you know that the phrasal verb "look up" is separable, and you can say
"look something up" and "look up something". It's a good idea to write
"something/somebody" as appropriate in your vocabulary book when you
learn a new phrasal verb, like this:
 get up
 break down
 put something/somebody off
 turn sthg/sby down
This tells you whether the verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).
Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb
plus another word or words. Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as
phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction between three
types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and
phrasal-prepositional verbs. On this page we look at prepositional
verbs.
Prepositional verbs are made of:
verb + preposition
Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have
direct objects. Here are some examples of prepositional verbs:
examples
meaning
prepositional verbs direct object
have faith in
believe in the existence I believe in God.
of
He is looking
look after take care of the dog.
after
Did you talk
talk about discuss me?
about
John is
wait for await Mary.
waiting for
- 115 -
Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put
the direct object between the two parts. For example, we must say "look
after the baby". We cannot say "look the baby after":
Who is looking after

This is possible.
prepositional the baby?
verbs are
inseparable
Who is looking the
This is not possible.
baby after?
It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book

when you learn a new prepositional verb, like this:
 believe in something/somebody
 look after sthg/sby
This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object (and where to put
it).
Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are a small group of multi-word verbs made

from a verb plus another word or words. Many people refer to all multi-
word verbs as phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction
between three types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal
verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs. On this page we look at phrasal-
prepositional verbs.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made of:
verb + adverb + preposition
Look at these examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs:
- 116 -
examples
phrasal-
meaning
prepositional direct object
verbs
have a friendly He doesn't get

get on with his wife.
relationship with on with
I won't put up
put up with tolerate your attitude.
with
anticipate with I look forward
look forward to seeing you.
pleasure to
We have run
run out of use up, exhaust eggs.
out of
Because phrasal-prepositional verbs end with a preposition, there is
always a direct object. And, like prepositional verbs, phrasal-prepositional
verbs cannot be separated. Look at these examples:
We ran out of fuel.
phrasal-
prepositional verbs are We ran out of it.
inseparable
It is a good idea to write "something/somebody" in your vocabulary book

when you learn a new phrasal-prepositional verb, like this:
 get on with somebody
 put up with sthg/sby
 run out of something
This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object (and where to put it).
- 117 -
Have to
Must, Must not/Mustn't
Must is a modal auxiliary verb.
Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main
verb). We include have to here for convenience.
In this lesson we look at these two verbs, followed by a quiz to

check your understanding:
• Have to (objective obligation)
• Must (subjective obligation)
• Must not/Mustn't (prohibition)
Have to (objective obligation)
We often use have to say that something is obligatory, for example:

• Children have to go to school.
Structure of Have to
Have to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience,
but in fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the
have to structure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:
subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with to)
Look at these examples in the simple tense:
main
auxiliary
subject verb infinitive (with to)
verb
have
+ She has to work.
- I do not have to see the doctor.
? Did you have to go to school?
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Use of Have to
In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have

to is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example,
the Law or school rules). Have to is objective. Look at these examples:
 In France, you have to drive on the right.

 In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform.
 John has to wear a tie at work.
In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or
idea. The obligation is imposed from outside.
We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. We
conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here are some examples:
main
auxiliary verb
subject verb have infinitive
past simple I had to work yesterday.
present
I have to work today.
simple
future simple I will have to work tomorrow.
present
She is having to wait.
continuous
present
We have had to change the time.
perfect
modal (may) They may have to do it again.
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Must (subjective obligation)
We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for

example:
• I must go.
Structure of Must
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The
structure is:
subject + must + main verb
The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
auxiliary must main verb

subject
I must go home.
You must visit us.
We must stop now.
Like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by to. So, we say:
• I must go now. (not *I must to go now.)
Use of Must
In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what
the speaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective. Look at these
examples:
• I must stop smoking.
• You must visit us soon.
• He must work harder.
In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the
person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from
outside.
It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a

rule or a law. But generally we use have to for this.
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We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these
examples:
• I must go now. (present)
• I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)
We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to talk about
the past.
Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)
We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for
example:
• Passengers must not talk to the driver.
Structure of Must not

Must is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure
for must not is:
subject + must not + main verb
The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").
Must not is often contracted to mustn't.
subject auxiliary must + not main verb
I mustn't forget my keys.
You mustn't disturb him.
Students must not be late.
NB: like all auxiliary verbs, must CANNOT be followed by "to". So, we say:
• You mustn't arrive late. (not You mustn't to arrive late.)
- 121 -
Use of Must not
Must not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, not

allowed. The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or
objective (a real law or rule). Look at these examples:
 I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective)

 You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective)
 Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective)
 Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)
We can use must not to talk about the present or the future:
 Visitors must not smoke. (present)

 I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)
We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other
structures to talk about the past, for example:
 We were not allowed to enter.

 I couldn't park outside the shop.
Shall versus Will
People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shall
and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as
"Shall I call a taxi?"). This is not really true. The difference between shall
and will is often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in
speaking with 'll. But the difference does exist.
The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:
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1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)
Person Verb Example Contraction
I shall be in
I shall London I'll
tomorrow.
You will see a
Singular
you will large building on You'll
the left.
He will be
he, she, it will He'll
wearing blue.
We shall not be
we shall there when you We shan't
arrive.
You will find his
Plural
you will office on the 7th You'll
floor.
They will arrive
they will They'll
late.
- 123 -
2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or
command)
Person Verb Example Contraction
I will do
everything
I will I'll
possible to
help.
Singular
You shall be
you shall You'll
sorry for this.
It shall be
he, she, it shall It'll
done.
We will not
we will We won't
interfere.
You shall do
you shall as you're You'll
Plural told.
They shall
give one
they shall They'll
month's
notice.
It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let

those who make assertions such as "People in the USA never use
'shall'" peruse a good USA English dictionary, or many USA legal
documents which often contain phrases such as:
• Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event of
termination.
Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would.
It is perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write, for example:
• I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest
catalogue.
- 124 -
English Conditionals
There are several structures in English that are called conditionals.

"Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is
true, then a particular result happens.
If y = 10 , then 2y = 20
If y = 3 , then 2y = 6
There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are
some more conditionals that we do not use so often.
In this lesson, we will look at the three basic conditionals as well as the
so-called zero conditional. We'll finish with a quiz to check your
understanding.
People sometimes call conditionals "IF" structures or sentences,

because there is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional
sentence.
Structure of Conditional Sentences
The structure of most conditionals is very simple. There are two basic
possibilities. Of course, we add many words and can use various
tenses, but the basic structure is usually like this:
IF condition result
IF y = 10 2y = 20
or like this:
result IF condition
2y = 20 IF y = 10
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First Conditional: real possibility
We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular

condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is
a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning.
You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are
some clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?
IF condition result
present simple WILL + base verb

If it rains I will stay at home.
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet.
But the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present
simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL +
base verb to talk about the possible future result. The important thing
about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility that the
condition will happen. Here are some more examples (do you
remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF
condition]?):
IF condition result
present simple WILL + base verb
If I see Mary I will tell her.
If Tara is free tomorrow he will invite her.
If they do not pass their exam their teacher will be sad.
If it rains tomorrow will you stay at home?
If it rains tomorrow what will you do?
- 126 -
result IF condition
WILL + base verb present simple
I will tell Mary if I see her.
He will invite Tara if she is free tomorrow.
Their teacher will be sad if they do not pass their exam.
Will you stay at home if it rains tomorrow?
What will you do if it rains tomorrow?
Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will, for example: If

you are good today, you can watch TV tonight.
Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream
The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking
about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the
future, and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility
that this condition will happen. For example, you do not have a lottery
ticket. Is it possible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you
will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can think about winning in
the future, like a dream. It's not very real, but it's still possible.
IF condition result
past simple WOULD + base verb
If I won the lottery I would buy a car.
- 127 -
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past
simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base
verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second
conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will
happen.
Here are some more examples:
IF condition result
past simple WOULD + base verb
If I married Mary I would be happy.
If Ram became rich she would marry him.
If it snowed next July would you be surprised?
If it snowed next July what would you do?
result IF condition
WOULD + base verb past simple
I would be happy if I married Mary.
She would marry Ram if he became rich.
Would you be surprised if it snowed next July?
What would you do if it snowed next July?
Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for

example: If I won a million dollars, I could stop working.
- 128 -
Third Conditional:
no possibility
The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With
the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition
in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this
condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no
possibility of the dream coming true.
Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-(
condition result

Past Perfect WOULD HAVE + Past Participle
If I had won the lottery I would have bought a car.
Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did
not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular
condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect
tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE
+ past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important
thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are
impossible now.
Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might have instead of

would have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might
have won.
- 129 -
Look at some more examples in these tables:
IF condition result
past perfect WOULD HAVE + past participle
If I had seen Mary I would have told her.
Tara had been free
If I would have invited her.
yesterday
they had not passed their their teacher would have been
If
exam sad.
If it had rained yesterday would you have stayed at home?
If it had rained yesterday what would you have done?
result IF condition
WOULD HAVE + past participle past perfect
I would have told Mary if I had seen her.
I would have invited Tara if she had been free yesterday.

Their teacher would have been they had not passed their
if
sad exam.
Would you have stayed at home if it had rained yesterday?
What would you have done if it had rained yesterday?
- 130 -
Zero Conditional: certainty
We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is
always true, like a scientific fact.
Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens?
The ice melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not.
IF condition result
present simple present simple
If you heat ice it melts.
Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this
condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are
not thinking about the future or the past, or even the present. We are
thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk
about the condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about
the result. The important thing about the zero conditional is that the
condition always has the same result.
We can also use when instead of if, for example: When I get up late I
miss my bus.
- 131 -

All You Need To Know About Grammar

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Index

Present Continuous Tense -----------------------------------------------------------------------1

We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is

How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

Look at these examples:

subject auxiliary verb main verb

+ You are reading this.

- She is not staying in London.

- We are not playing football.

? Are they waiting for John?

Present continuous tense for action happening now

past present future

b) for action happening around now

John is going out with Mary.

past present future

I am taking my exam next month.

past present future

Look at these examples:

Just add -ing to the base verb:

If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant,

stop > stopping

run > running

begin > beginning

open > opening

lie > lying

die > dying

mistake > mistaking

How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

There are three important exceptions:

subject auxiliary verb main verb

I, you, we, they like coffee.

I, you, we, they do not like coffee.

Do I, you, we, they like coffee?

subject main verb

+ You, we, they are French.

He, she, it is French.

- You, we, they are not old.

He, she, it is not old.

? Are you, we, they late?

Is he, she, it late?

How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

John drives a taxi.

past present future

The situation is now.

past present future

The situation is general. Past, present and future.

How do we make the Simple Past Tense?

subject auxiliary verb main verb

She did not go with me.

Did you go to London?

subject main verb

I, he/she/it was here.

I, he/she/it was not there.

Was I, he/she/it right?

+ auxiliary verb WILL + main verb

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not

subject auxiliary verb main verb

+ You will finish before me.

- She will not be at school tomorrow.

- We will not leave yet.

? Will you arrive on time?