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Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
and Genetics
Chapter 19
Diploid- It is a organism that reproduce sexually and their cells contain two
sets of chromosomes—one inherited from each parent. The maternal
chromosome set and the paternal chromosome set are very similar, except
for their sex chromosomes
The gametes—are haploid: they each contain only one set of chromosomes.
A gamete is the scientific term for a sex cell.
In animals, the gametes are the sperm and the egg cells.
In flowering plants, the gametes are the pollen and the egg cells.
Asexual reproduction: give rise to offspring that genetically
identical to parent organism
Sexual reproduction: involves the mixing of DNA from two
individuals to produce offspring that are genetically distinct
from one another and from both their parents.
Sexual reproduction involves the cyclic alternation of diploid
and haploid states: diploid cells divide by meiosis to form
haploid gametes
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND
GENETICS
Haploid:
Only one set of chromosomes ,and gametes or germ cells are haploid
• In animals, egg and sperm- egg is large and nonmotile while sperm is opposite and the
two join to form a diploid cell, called a fertilized egg or zygote which contains
chromosomes from both parents
• The zygote then develops into a new individual with a diploid set of chromosomes that is
distinct from that of either parent.
Despite their tremendous difference in size, sperm and egg contribute
equally to the genetic character of the offspring.
Germ-line cells and somatic cells carry out fundamentally different functions.
In sexually reproducing animals, diploid germ-line cells, which are specified
early in development, give rise to haploid gametes by meiosis.
The gametes propagate genetic information into the next generation. Somatic
cells (gray) form the body of the organism and are therefore necessary to support
sexual reproduction, but they themselves leave no progeny.
MEIOSIS AND FERTILIZATION
•Anaphase I
•Homologous chromosomes separate and move
to opposite poles of the cell.
•Telophase I
•The spindles break down.
•Chromosomes uncoil and form two nuclei.
•The cell divides.
Meiosis II •Meiosis II Meiosis II
•Prophase II •Metaphase II •Anaphase II
Sexual
Dominance
•An organism with two of the same alleles for
a particular trait is homozygous.
•An organism with two different alleles for a
particular trait is heterozygous
Mendel’s Law of Segregation
Principle that the maternal and paternal alleles for a trait separate
from one another during gamete formation and then reunite
during fertilization; Mendel's first law of inheritance.
Genetics
•Two alleles for each trait separate during meiosis.
•During fertilization, two alleles for that trait unite.
•Heterozygous organisms are called hybrids.
Recessive alleles all follow the
same Mendelian laws of
inheritance.
We trace the inheritance of type II
albinism, a recessive trait that is
associated with a single gene in
humans.
Normally pigmented individuals
can be either homozygous (AA) or
heterozygous (Aa) for dominant
allele A.
Monohybrid Cross
•A cross that involves hybrids for a
single trait is called a monohybrid
cross.
Dihybrid Cross
•The simultaneous inheritance of two or
more traits in the same plant is a dihybrid
cross.
•Dihybrids are heterozygous for both
traits.
Punnett Squares
•Predict the possible offspring
of a cross between two known
genotypes
In this experiment, each well in this 96-well plate is filled with E. coli that produce a
different double-stranded (ds), interfering RNA. E. coli are a standard diet for C. elegans
raised in the laboratory. Each interfering RNA matches the nucleotide sequence of a
single C. elegans gene. About 10 worms are added to each well, where they ingest the
genetically modified bacteria. The plate is incubated for several days, which gives the
RNAs time to bind to and inactivate their target genes—and the worms time to grow,
mate, and produce offspring. The plate is then examined in a microscope, which can be
controlled robotically, to screen for genes that affect the worms’ ability to survive,
reproduce, develop, and behave. Because the investigator knows which interfering RNA
was added to each well, the gene responsible for any resulting defect can be readily
identified. Shown here are wild-type worms alongside a mutant that shows an impaired
ability to reproduce.
RNA interference provides a convenient method for conducting genome-
wide genetic screens.
A complementation test
can reveal that mutations in two
different genes are responsible
for the same abnormal
phenotype. When an albino
(white) bird from one strain is
bred with an albino from a
different strain, the resulting
offspring have normal coloration.
This restoration of the wild-type
plumage implies that the two
white breeds lack color because
of recessive mutations in
different genes.
EXPLORING HUMAN GENETICS
Genetic screens in model experimental organisms have been
spectacularly successful in identifying genes and relating them to various
phenotypes, including many that are conserved between these
organisms and humans. But the same approach cannot be used in
humans.
Many rare, inherited human diseases are due to mutations in a single gene.
The most common human disorders are due to many genes acting together; DNA
sequencing studies are identifying mutations in these genes that increase the risk
of developing these diseases.
END