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Chapter 3 Differentiation
Chapter 3 Differentiation
Chapter 3 Differentiation
Differentiation
2
Section I
3
The Limit Process
The Idea of a Limit
We start with a number c and a function f defined at all numbers x near c but not
necessarily at c itself. In any case, whether or not f is defined at c and, if so, how is
totally irrelevant.
lim f x L
x c
Now let L be some real number. We say that the limit of f (x) as x tends to c is L and
write that
provided
The curve in Figure 2.1.4 represents the graph of a function f. The number c is on the
Numbers x near c fall into two natural categories: those that lie to the left of c
lim f x L
and those that xlie
c to the right of c. We write
[The left-hand limit of f(x) as x tends to c is L.]
to indicate that
lim f x
x 5
The full limit, , does not exist: consideration of x < 5 would force the limit to
For a full limit to exist, both one-sided limits have to exist and they have to be equal.
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1-9
These graphs show the behavior of three different functions around x=2.
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The Limit Process
Example 9
We refer to function indicated in Figure 2.1.10 and examine the behavior of f(x) for x
number L. Therefore
limx →
f(x)
7 does not exist.
As x approaches 7 from the left, f(x) becomes arbitrarily large and cannot stay close
f (x)→∞. To indicate that f (x) becomes arbitrarily large negative, we can write
f (x)→−∞.
Consider Figure 2.1.10, and note that for the function depicted
Consequently,
as x → 3, f (x)→∞.
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If we apply Theorem 2, part (4), and separately determine the limit of the numerator and the
denominator, we find that both terms tend to zero, and we cannot find the limit in this way.
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1.2 Continuity of a function
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The discontinuity can be removed by redefining f at x . If the limit is L, redefine f at x to be L.
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Continuity
Example 1
x3 x
The function F x 3 x 2 4
x 5x 6
is continuous at all real numbers other than 2 and 3. You can see this by noting that
F = 3 f + g/h + k
where
3 2
f (x) = |x|, g(x) = x − x, h(x) = x − 5x + 6, k(x) = 4.
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Intermediate Value Theorem
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b] and L is any number between f (a) and f
(b), then there is at least one number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.
y f ( x)
f (b)
f (c) = L
f (a)
a c b
Example
1-30
The first function is continuous at .
f(0) = 02 − 4 · 0 + 2 > 0.
f(2) = 22 − 4 · 2 + 2 < 0.
Since it verifies the intermediate value
theorem, there is at least one c that
belongs to the interval (0, 2) and intersects
the x-axis.
•We cannot confirm the same of the
second function because it is not
continuous at x = 1.
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Example
1-34
Using Bolzano's theorem, show that the equation: x3 + x
− 5 = 0, has at least one solution for x = a such that 1 < a
< 2.
f(x) is continuous in [1,2]
f(1) = 13 + 1 − 5 = −3 < 0
f(2) = 23 + 2 − 5 = 5 > 0
Since it verifies the Bolzano's Theorem, there is c (1,2)
such that:
f(c) = 0 c3 + c − 5 = 0.
Therefore there is at least one real solution to the
equation x3+ x − 5 = 0.
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DIFFERENCE QUOTIENT AND THE
DERIVATIVE
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Differentiation Using Limits of Difference Quotients
Secant line
The Difference Quotient is used to find the average rate of change between two points.
The Difference Quotient also represents to slope of the secant line between two points on a
curve.
Derivative = Slope of Tangent Line
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Interpretations of the Derivative
The derivative of a function f is a new function The
domain of is a subset of the domain of f. The derivative
has various applications and interpretations, including
the following:
1.Slope of the tangent line. For each x in the domain of is
the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at the point
(x, f(x)).
2.2. Instantaneous rate of change. For each x in the
domain of is the instantaneous rate of change of with
respect to x.
3.3. Velocity. If f(x) is the position of a moving object at
time x, then is the velocity of the object at that time.v =
f’(x)
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Basic Differentiation Formulas
If the derivative of a function is its slope, then for a constant function, the derivative must be zero.
d
c 0 example: y3 y 0
dx
The derivative of a constant is zero.
d n
Power Rule:
dx
x nx n 1
d du
Constant Multiple Rule:
cu c
If c is a constant and f is differentiable function, then dx dx
d du dv
The Sum Rule:
u v
dx dx dx
d du dv
The Difference Rule:
u v
dx dx dx
d 2
dx
x 3 2 x
3
5 x
x 2 3 6 x 2 5 2 x 3 5 x 2x
du dv
The Quotient Rule:
v u u v du u dv
d u dx dx d
v v 2
dx v v2
Example:
d 2x 5x 3 x 2 3 6 x 2 5 2 x3 5 x 2 x
dx x 3 x
2 2
2
3 1-48
GRAPHING FUNCTIONS
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1. Monotonicity
Checking a function f for monotonicity requires us to determine the intervals on which function f
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Let Df = [a, b]. In the domain Df , there are two local minimum points x2 and x4 as well as two
local maximum points x1 and x3. The global maximum point is x3 and the global minimum point
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3. Convexity and concavity
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To decide whether a function is convex or concave, the following notion of an inflection point can be helpful.
Consequently, if the second derivative changes the sign ‘at’ point x0, then point x0 is an inflection point of
function f
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DEFINITION Marginal Cost, Revenue, and
Profit
1-79
Example
1-80
Composite Functions
Logarithmic differentiation
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Limits
• We have already discussed some rules for computing limits of
sums, differences, products or quotients of functions. However, it
was necessary that each of the limits exists, i.e. each of the limits
was a finite number.
• The question we consider now is what happens when we want to
determine the limit of a quotient of two functions, and both limits
of the function in the numerator and the function in the
denominator tend to ∞ as x tends to a specific value x0.
• The same question arises when both functions in the numerator and
in the denominator tend to zero as x approaches some value x0.
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Therefore, we are interested in an overview on derivatives of
elementary functions which we can use when investigating
more complicated functions later.
Table 1 contains the derivatives of some elementary functions
of one variable.
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Derivative of composite and inverse
functions
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DIFFERENTIAL; RATE OF
CHANGE AND ELASTICITY
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• We have already discussed that the derivative of a function
characterizes the change in the function value for a ‘very small’
change in the variable x.
• However, in economics often a modified measure is used to describe
the change of the value of a function f .
• The reason for this is that a change in the price of, e.g. bread by 1
EUR would be very big in comparison with the current price,
whereas the change in the price of a car by 1 EUR would be very
small.
• Therefore, economists prefer measures for characterizing the change
of a function value in relation to this value itself.
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In economics, the term elasticity refers to the responsiveness of one
economic variable to changes in another economic variable.
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TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS
TAYLOR YOUNG THEOREM
EXAMPLE
APPROXIMATE DETERMINATION OF
ZEROES
BY NEWTON ALGORITHM
Illustration of Newton’s method
Description of the algorithm
Convergence condition
EXAMPLE
n xn
0 1
1
2
3
4