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Debre Markos University College of Business and Economics Department of Economics
Debre Markos University College of Business and Economics Department of Economics
Debre Markos University College of Business and Economics Department of Economics
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•When most people talk about money, they're talking about currency(paper money
and coins).
•Currency consisting of paper money like birr and coins, clearly fits this definition
and is one type of money.
•According to Paul Samuelson, money is the modern medium of exchange and the
standard unit in which price and debt are expressed .
•Similarly money is referred as the money supply and it is anything that gets
generally accepted in payment for goods or services or in the repayment of debts.
2.It must be widely accepted for any thing to be money ,it should be
acceptable by every body i.e general acceptability.
5. It should be stored and last long without losing its value . It must
•A store of value is used to save purchasing power from the time income is
received until the time it is spent.
•The ability to hold value over time .
•Money is a bridge from the present to the future .i.e money allow you to
transfer value or wealth in to the future.(keynes ).
•Money is not unique as a store of value; any asset whether money, stocks,
bonds, land, houses, art, or jewelry-can be used to store wealth.
•It is the necessary property of money .
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• Many such assets have advantages over money as a store of value:
They often pay the owner a higher interest rate than money,
experience price appreciation, and deliver services such as
providing a roof over one’s head.
• On the other hand, they have certain disadvantages as a store of
value, among which are the following:
3. They are “illiquid” in varying degrees, for they are not generally
acceptable as money and it may be possible to convert them into
money quickly only by suffering a loss of value.”
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2)Money as a standard of deferred payment
•Money act as a standard of deferred post ponded payments .i.e
a property of an item that makes it desirable for use as a means of
setting debt maturing in the future .
•Money has simplified both taking and repayment of loan
because the unit of account is durable .
•It is essential property of money .
“ Money is a good servant but a bad master’’ . Now economists regard money is
not merely veil (misbehave) but also extremely valuable (like good servant )social
instrument promoting wealth and welfare .
•As a master it leads to economic and non economic defects .
7. Selection of formula
•The construct of the appropriate index formula (simple price
index formulaorweighted price index),depends on availability
of data, the degree of accuracy desired, the nature of the problem
under investigation and purpose of the index number.
• The base-period index number is thus 100, and periods with higher price
levels have index numbers greater than 100.
• The distinctive feature of the Laspeyres index is that it uses a group of
commodities purchased in the base period as the basis for comparison.
2. Open (impersonal) money market: The bank may provide short term
fund to business and government by simply purchasing the debt
instrument issued by business firm and government .
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• Such short run term advance are made in the open market ,and
being negotiated through the broker ,the lender banks and the
borrowers do not meet .
• The intermediaries comprise ,central bank (federal reserve
banks, commercial banks, insurance company, business
corporations, brokerage houses ,financial companies.
•They usually deploy (bring) their short term deposit to lend for
short term loan to provide working capital to industry and trade .
•They invest bill of exchange and treasury bill.
•These assets are considered as the secondary reserve for the bank.
•The commercial bank also borrow from other banks and central
bank.
•They act as intermediaries between those who have surplus fund to invest in bill and those
who are in need of fund.
•Its primary function is to discount bill on behave of other.
•They in turn form the commercial bank and accept the houses.
market in LDCs .
•The fund which flow in the capital market comes from individual
who have saving to invest ,the merchant banks ,the commercial
bank ,non bank financial intermediaries, such as insurance
company, finance house , unit trusts ,investment trust ,venture
capital , leasing finance ,mutual fund building society .
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• Capital markets provide avenue/opportunity where
companies can raise funds to expand on their businesses or
establish new ones by issuing securities owned by the
companies.
• Like businesses in the private sector, government issue its
securities to raise funds in capital markets to build
electricity dam, construct new roads, bridges by issues.
• It is a period up to 25 years .
5) Investment trust:
•A limited company which buy and sell shares in selected
companies to make a profit for its members.
2. Debenture of corporations:
• An acknowledgement of a debt issued by a limited company. Debentures
pay a fixed interest and are very long-dated.
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3. Stocks and bonds are long-term fixed interest bearing
securities issued by Government and companies.
•Stock is the capital raised by a company through the issue and
subscription of shares(usually stocks) a portion of this as held by
an individual or group as an investment.
•Bond is a certificate issued by a government or a public
company promising to repay borrowed money at a fixed rate of
interest at a specified time.
D) Commercial bank
• Their behavior plays an important role in determining the
money supply.
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2. Contractual Savings Institutions
•It includes insurance companies and pension funds, mortgage
stock exchange ,are financial intermediaries that acquire funds at
periodic intervals on a contractual basis.
•Because they can predict with reasonable accuracy how much they
will have to pay out in benefit in the coming years, they do not have to
worry as much as depository institutions about losing funds.
• These institutions include life insurance companies, Fire and
casualty insurance, companies, and pension funds and government
retirement funds.
•They keep the rate of interest low and thus promote investment
which is essential for the economic growth of the country.
Criticism
1. Interest is not the reward for saving according to Keynes , one can get
interest by lending money which has been saved but has been inherited
from ones forefather .
• If a man hoards his saving in cash ,he earns no interest.
• The amount of savings depends upon not only interest rate but also the
level of income.
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2) Keynes’s further maintains that the classical theory of
interest rate is indeterminate and confounding .
r=f(S,I), however ,
5. Keynes point out that equality between saving and investment was
brought about by changes in the level of income and not by the rate of
interest as a asserted by the classical economists .
• H+I is Total demand for loan able fund at different interest rate,
its slope is down ward sloping ,because the lower the rate of
interest ,the higher is the demand for loan able funds and vice versa.
• At point E the two curve intersect each other ,which indicates the
level of the market rate of interest (OR*) .
•People hold money for securing profit from knowing better than
the market what the future will bring forth .
•To get gain by investing on bonds. Bond price and interest rate
are inversely related .
•According to Keynesians ,it is expectation about change in bond
prices or in the current market rate of interest that determine the
speculative demand for money .
B) Idle cash balance consists of demand for money for speculative motive
interest elastic and income determining is represented by L2(r) .
• Speculative demand for money is decreasing function of the rate of
interest rate to the matter of expectations about a safe future rate of
interest .
• The lower interest rate, the higher speculative demand for money.
• In the liquidity function, however, it is postulated by Keynes that
demand for money is positively correlated with income .
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• It is unrealistic to have independent interest rate from demand for
investment fund.
• It ignore the long run period and only focus on the short run. but,
capital investment is along run interest which is really significant .
4) Neo- Keynesian (Modern ) theory of interest rate
• This theory is developed by Neo Keynesian economists like, Hicks
,Lerner and Hansen etc.
• According to the modern theory of interest, the equilibrium rate of
interest and equilibrium level of income are determined simultaneously
at the point of intersection between the IS and the LM curves.
• All other combinations of income and rate of interest are disequilibrium
combinations.
• It provide determinate theory of interest rate.
• It combines monetary and real factors to seek an explanation of the
determinants of the rate of interest.
• It is identified that four factors are determining the rate of interest .
To draw graphically ;
IS: denotes the equilibrium in the real sector, showing various combinations of the
level of income (y) and interest rate (r) at which there is equilibrium aggregate
• It gives different level of income at which the saving and investments are equal .
r1
r2
r2
Solution :
3.Discuses the financial institutions and instruments in money and capital market ?
6.Distinguish between money market and capital market .How are they
interrelated ?
7.Critically discuss the classical ,loanable fund ,Keynesian and modern theory of
interest rate as an explanation of interest rate ?
Solution :
V= PT/M =5 /2
V= 2 .5, which means that the average Birr is spent 2.5 times in
purchasing final goods and services per year . —
PT
Figure 3.1.fisherian demand for money and value of transaction
• The slope of Md curve is K or 1/v . since k is assumed to be
constant the Md curve is a straight linear .
• Its slopes outward indicating a direct proportion relation ship
between the demand for money with the value of transaction
(PT). In fisherian sense ,the demand for money depends on the
institutionally determined needs .
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• The relation ship between quantity of money supply and
,price level and value of money .
Figure 3.2 The relation ship between piece and quantity of money
• It assumes that people demand money not for saving but every
thing they get will be spendable which not true in real sense .
• He consider money from the view of the velocity of money
rather than the motive of holding money .
• Other things are not constant or equal in real life as M change
and ,as price changes ,total volume of transaction changes .
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• The velocity of money (V) may not be a constant factor i.e V may vary with
the volume of trade (T) ,price level (P), volume of money ,population
density ,development of transport and payment habit of individuals .
•The demand for money is the cash balance held by the people .
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• This view argued that the total demand for money or cash balance is the
proportion of nominal national income .
• The Cambridge equations show that given the supply of money at a point of
time, the value of money is determined by the demand for cash balances.
• The demand for money induced by transactions and precautionary motive
constitutes a certain proportion of its annual real national income which is the
community desires to hold in the form of money .
• Symbolically; The Cambridge demand for money function (Marshallian
equation ); Md=kpy . Where; Md is money demand and k is the proportionality
factor or the cash balance the people wish to hold i.e the proportion or fraction
of national income that people desire to keep in the form of nominal money
balance or cash balances.
• py is the nominal national income(p is price of final goods and y is real income
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or final goods ).
• As the nominal income remaining constant ,the change in the
proportionality factors will change the demand for money i.e as the
proportionality factor (k) increase ,the demand for money also increase
and vice versa .
• Under this theory a money demand function is an equation that shows
what determines the quantity of real money balances people wish to hold.
A simple money demand function is :
• Real money balance (Md/P)= kY
• Where k is a constant that tells us how much money people want to hold
for every dollar of income. This equation states that the quantity of real
money balances demanded is proportional to real income.
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• This money demand function offers another
way to view the quantity equation. To see this,
add to the money demand function the
condition that the demand for real money
balances (M/P)d must equal the supply M/P.
Therefore,
• M/p=kY
• M=kYP let k=1/v
• MV=YP
Solution:Md=kpy
Income
Lp=L1+L2
• The individual attains equilibrium at point P1 the point of tangency between the
indifference curve and the opportunity curve, ox1.
• At p1, the portfolio of the individual consists of both money and bonds.
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• If the rate of interest rises, the opportunity curves for the individual
shifts to OX2.
• The equilibrium is at point P2, where a greater proportion of
assets will be in the form of bonds.
• In other words, as the interest rate increases, the increase in the
wealth holder's welfare which has been shown by the movement
on to the higher indifference curves is a accomplished by an
increase in the amount of bonds ( or decrease in the amount of
money held ) and also by increase in the portfolio risk.
• That is From the above graph , when interest rate is r1 and s/he
hold bond s (OP1) and P1M money (cash) .
• When the rate of interest increase from r1 to r2 risk averter , hold
successive units of more bonds (rise from OP1 to OP2) and less on
money (reduce from P1P2 ) in their portfolio
• Thus, Tobin again, like Keynes, proves the negative relationship
between the speculative demand for money and the rate of
interest.
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• The figure also shows that, as the rate of interest rate increase,
by equal increment from r1 to r2 by the, risk averter hold bond
by a deceasing increment.
• This means that the demand for money is fall by small
amounts, as the rate of interest increase . This because the total
wealth in the portfolio consists of bond plus money .
bond ) , re(rate of interest on equity) and which determine the demand for money,
rm is the own rate of interest on money.
Md
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Money balance
Superiority of Friedman over Keynesian theory
• Friedman use broader definition of money i.e money is an
asset or capital goods capable of serving a temporary abode of
purchasing power than demand deposit and non interest
bearing dept of the government .
• Demand for money is a function of many variables like
bond ,security ,yield of money and yield on physical assets
rather and other variables i.e taste and preference of the
consumers than confined to bond only .
• Monetary disturbance directly affects price and production of
all actives un like Keynes .
• Friedman did not divide the motive of holding cash in active
and idle balance .
• Friedman introduce permanent income and nominal income to
explain his theory but Keynesian did not doing so .
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Criticism
1. Very Broad Definition of Money:
• Friedman has been criticized for using the broad definition of
money which not only includes currency and demand deposits (М 1)
but also time deposits with commercial banks (M2). This broad
definition leads to the obvious conclusion that the interest elasticity
of the demand for money is negligible. If the rate of interest
increases on time deposits, the demand for them (M2) rises. But the
demand for currency and demand deposits (M1) falls.
• So the overall effect of the rate of interest will be negligible on the
demand for money. But Friedman’s analysis is weak in that he does
not make a choice between long-term and short-term interest rates.
In fact, if demand deposits (M1) are used a short-term rate is
preferable, while a long-term rate is better with time deposits (M2).
Such an interest rate structure is bound to influence the demand for
money.
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2. Money not a Luxury Good: Friedman regards money as a luxury
good because of the inclusion of time deposits in money. This is
based on his finding that there is higher trend rate of the money
supply than income in the United States. But no such ‘luxury
effect’ has been found in the case of England.
3. More Importance to Wealth Variables:
• In Friedman’s demand for money function, wealth variables are
preferable to income and the operation of wealth and income
variables simultaneously does not seem to be justified. As pointed
out by Johnson, income is the return on wealth, and wealth is
the present value of income. The presence of the rate of interest
and one of these variables in the demand for money function
would appear to make the other superfluous.
4. Does not consider Time Factor:
• Friedman does not tell about the timing and speed of adjustment or
the length of time to which his theory applies.
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1.5Empirical evidence on money demand
• Empirical finding shows that interest sensitivity of money
demand but no liquidity trap .
• It is also observed that transactional demand was stable till
1973, unstable after; most likely, source of instability is
financial innovation and cast doubts on money targets.
• There is a broader agreement that income is positively related
with money demand and interest rate is negatively related with
money demand ,but considerable variation in value of
regression coefficient .
• m tell as by how much will change money supply with a given change in high
powered money or base money .
• Let us the two stock concept for our discussion first .
1)Take M1
• Monetary base or high powered money or reserve money(H): C+RR(bank
deposit of banks at NBE) where RR is required reserve of commercial bank
and C currency with the public .
• Money supply (M):M1=C+DD Where, D is the demand deposit of commercial
bank and C is currency with BY:
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theYeshiwas
public.Ewinetu Tegegne 383
• At any particular time there should be a monetary base of a given value and
similarly a given quantity of a broader money and it’s a simple task to create ratio
of money supply to a monetary base .
• As we see from above ,the volume of abroad based money relation to the base
depend up on the two ratio ;
Currency to deposited ratio (Cr) or the public cash ratio .
Reserve to bank deposit ratio (Rr ) or bank ratio.
• The higher the value of m1 multiplier, the lower will be the reserve ratio(Rr)
and currency deposit ratio (Cr) .
• Note : In fractional reserve system Rr will have a value less than 1. Then, the
above term is greater than 1. Consequently , 1 birr increase in money base will
leads to more than 1 birr increase
12/13/2020 in money
BY: Yeshiwas supply(M1) .
Ewinetu Tegegne 384
Example1: Suppose that the monetary base B is
Birr 800 billion, the reserve–deposit ratio rr is
0.1, and the currency–deposit ratio cr is 0.8.
A)find the money multiplier ?
Solution :m2=Cr+1/Cr+Rr =2
B) Find the money supply ?
Solution:
M1= m1XB= 2xBirr 800= Birr 1,600
M2=m2H
• Where Rr is required reserve ratio, Cr is currency ratio and Td time
deposit ratio.
• The value of m2 is higher than m1 multiplier because , because it leads to
greater increase in the monetary base .
Hs’
Figure 1. Figure 2.
• In figure1,Hs is the supply of high powered money
• Hd is the demand for high powered money associated with each
level of money supply (Hd=Cr+Rr+Er)/1+Cr.
• Given the Cr,Rr and Er and the high powered money Hs, the
equilibrium money supply is OM . If the money supply is larger
than this like OM1,there will be excess demand for high powered
money and vice versa.
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• If there is an increase in any one of the ratio Cr,or Rr or Er, there
would be an increase in demand for high powered money. This
is shown by Hd’ curve in figure. Where the increase in the
demand for high powered money lead to decline in the money
supply to OM’ .
M2=m2H
• Thus money supply is a function of m and H.
• The size of money multiplier (m) is determined by Cr, Rr,and Er .
• If these multiplier is low , m2 will be larger .
• Given the supply of high powered money, the money supply varies
inversely, with Cr,Rr and Er of the commercial bank.
• But the supply of money varies directly with the change in high
powered money as shown in figure 2.
2. Governor: It is a members of the board and one chair person and having
three vice governors (vice-governor of corporate service cluster, Vice
governor and financial stability cluster ,senior advisor to the
governor financial institution supervision cluster, monetary stability
cluster) listed detail sub directorates below .
The commercial banks only deal in foreign exchange under the directions of
the central bank they do not have the responsibility of maintaining the
foreign exchange reserves and stability in exchange rates.
The central bank is normally owned by the state, while commercial banks
are mostly privately owned.
State ownership of commercial banks is not considered to be as much
essential as that of the central bank.
The central bank does not deal directly with the public, while commercial
banks deal directly with the general public.
The central bank mainly deals with the government and the banking
institutions. Hence, it cannot undertake the functions normally performed
by the commercial banks. BY: Yeshiwas Ewinetu Tegegne
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The central bank is closely related to the government as its
banker and the financial adviser.
It is generally an organ of the government and its actions are
closely coordinated with those of the other departments,
particularly with the department of finance or the Treasury.
Commercial banks, on the other hand, act as bankers and
advisers to the general public only.
The central bank has a special relation with the commercial
banking system of the country.
It is given special powers to control, supervise and regulate the
working of the latter. The commercial banks are required to
act in accordance with the directives issued by the central
bank.
The central bank functions as a banker's bank.