Introduction to Ethics

ERLINDA PAZ, RN, LPT, MA.ED, PHD

ETHICS
AKA Moral Philosophy
Deals with the morality, moral rectitude or the
rightness and wrongness of human acts.
Practical and normative science, based on reason,
which studies human acts and provides norms for their
goodness / badness
Ethics as Practical Science
Deals with a systematized body of knowledge that can be
used, practiced and applied to human action.

Ethics Normative Science

Established norms and standards for the direction and
regulation of human actions.
ETHICS Based on Reason
Insofar you must find the source in the native power of
reason alone.
Investigates the facts, analyses them from practical
applications to particular actions.
ETHICS
Deals also with Human Acts insofar as they are performed
with intellectual deliberation and freedom.
Human Act
are done with knowledge and full consent of the will
 One knows what one is doing and one does it freely and
willingly
Elements of Human Act
Knowledge
Freedom
Voluntariness
Acts of Man
are performed in the absence of either/both of the two
conditions:
Knowledge and Full consent of the will
No element of human acts
RAPE CASE
Human Act
Rapist who thinks and behave as a Normal Individual.
Acts of Man
Rapist (Insane/Idiot)
Rapist does not know what he is doing
Rape victim suffers from the ACT OF MAN
IGNORANCE
the absence of knowledge in an individual who is supposed
to know it.
Types of IGNORANCE
Vincible Ignorance
Dishonest individual
Alibis
which cannot be overcome by exerting some effort
Invincible Ignorance
HONEST individual
With true reasoning
Which can hardly be removed even if one were to exert extra
effort to overcome it.
SCHOOL CASE
There is a test to be given in a class tomorrow. Two students
were absent during the previous meeting and do not have any
idea about the scheduled test to be given tomorrow. Students
should be responsible enough to know their schedules.
Student A knows the telephone numbers of some of the
people in the class and does not inquire from them and does
not furnish any necessary information, therefore does not
know the scheduled test to be given.
Student B exerts all effort to verify the test and yet cannot
obtain necessary information because the phone numbers had
bogged down for some reason
Who has a Vincible Ignorance?
Student A
Dishonest
Can overcome one’s ignorance if one wants, but does not
prefer to.
Who has Invincible Ignorance?
Student B
Student was being honest
Exhausted all possibilities to overcome one’s ignorance but
this was to no avail
Conscience
Latin words: CUM ALIA SCIENTIA
It’s a practical judgment of reason deciding upon an individual’s
action as good and to be performed or as evil and to be avoided
Voice of GOD
Main Function: to determine what one ought to be done in a
given situation
Types of Conscience
1. Erroneous/False Conscience
An act as good when it is evil and an act as evil when it is good.
Example: A nursing student, who thinks that to steal a small
amount of money from his parents and yet freely does so.
a. Culpable (guilty)
b. Inculpable (not guilty)
2. Correct/True Conscience
An act as good when it is truly good and act as evil when it is
truly evil
Example: A nurse for in his conscience, euthanasia is evil and
so he refuses to give lethal injection to a suffering patient
whose case is perceived by doctor as useless.
3.Certain Conscience
Assured and firm judgment of an act without any fear of
being in error.
Example: A patient who is a member of Jehovah’s Witness
firmly believe without any fear to die that BT is sinful and
never morally allowed thus refuses to be transfused with
500 cc of blood.
4. Doubtful Conscience
NO SURE JUDGEMENT of whether an act is good or bad
Example: A medical doctor is in doubt about whether or not it
is morally permissible to expel the non-viable fetus whose
motives are to save the mother and avoid the loss of two
lives.
5. Scrupulous Conscience
An act which is demanding, meticulous over something that
has been done
Example: A patient who suffers from spontaneous abortion
feels guilty that she is accountable for the loss of her baby.
6. Lax Conscience
An act which goes on and on without being corrected and
may become blinded with the truth of goodness that has to be
done and of evil that has to be avoided.
HUMAN FREEDOM (Threefold Phase)
7. Before the act: we are conscious about reasons whether in
favor or against the definite action
6. During the decision: we are conscious that we are giving the
consent freely, perform the action and assume responsibility
8. After the decision: we are conscious that we could have a
different decision, blame or praise ourselves from the action.
Ethical Postulates
-By Immanual Kant

Three ethical postulates:

-Human freedom
-Immortality of the soul
-God’s existence
Immortality of the Soul
Intellectual soul is spiritual and not made of matter
Cannot be destroyed and will continue to exist after death

GOD’S EXISTENCE
Supreme intelligence
Types of Ethics
General Ethics
-Refers to all diverse ethical formulations of general and universal
concepts and principles which serves as the foundation of morality

Applied Ethics
-Specifies the particular situations in life which they are valid and
legitimate (specific moral problems )
Professional Ethics
Is an applied type of ethics insofar as it deals with certain moral
precepts or rules by which persons behave and act in the exercise of
their calling or profession.
-Legal ethics
-Teacher’s code of ethics
-Health ethics
Health Ethics
Is a system of principles governing the conduct of health care
professionals
It deals with the relationship to:
-Patients/clients
-Patient’s family
-Co-workers
-Profession
-Society at large
Bioethics
Is the study of human conduct in the area of life sciences and health
care using moral values and principles
Greek word: BIOS - life
Bioethical Issues:
-LIFE: abortion, genetic screening, in vitro fertilization, single parents
-DEATH: euthanasia, withdrawing treatment etc.
Evolutionary Phases of Bioethical Studies
Medical Ethics
-Oldest phase of bioethical exploration
-A formulation of ethical norms for the conduct of health care
professionals in the treatment of patients
-Respect for the rights and acting by one’s duties will be for
the good of physician and the patient
Oath rules out any form of abortifacient
Another obvious it is reference to the practice of abortion
Prohibits sexual relations between doctors and patients
Significance of confidentiality ( medical secrecy)
Hippocratic Oath
-Oldest formulations of medical ethics
-Named after Hippocrates – Father of Medicine
Underscores the physician’s all out concern for the patient to
be kept from harm and injustice
Should not prescribed a fatal drug to anyone even if asked do
so
Percival’s Medical Ethics
American Medical Association’s Code of Ethics
Even members of numerous nonmedical professions have
contributed to the articulation of ethical issues and the
formalization of rules of conduct governing other human
relations
Research Ethics
2nd phase in the development of bioethical study in biomedical fields
Also known as Biomedical Research
Use of human as experimental specimens upon non-consenting in
anatomical studies, drug testing and experiments and researches.
3rd Reich 1933-1945 (Adolf Hitler)
Nuremburg Code (1947)
A ten point statement of principles that should be followed in
conducting human experimentations.
Attempted to humanize the barbaric and cruelty nature of
human experiments.
Takes into account the informed consent, informed decision
and informed choice.
Principles of Nuremburg Code
1. Voluntary Consent is absolutely essential.
2. The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful
results for the good of the society.
3. The experiment should be designed and based on
the results of animal experimentation and
knowledge of the natural history of the disease and
other problem of the study.
Principles of Nuremburg Code
4. The experiment should be conducted to avoid all
unnecessary physical and mental suffering and
injury.
5. No experiment should be conducted where there
is a prior reason to believe that death or injury will
occur, EXCEPT in those experiments where the
experimental physician also serve as subjects.
Principles of Nuremburg Code
6. The degree of risk to be taken should never
exceed that determined by the humanitarian
importance of the problem to be solve by the
experiment.
7. Proper preparation should be made and adequate
facilities provided to protect the subjects against
possible injury, disability or death.
Principles of Nuremburg Code
8. The experiment should be conducted ONLY by
scientific qualified person.
9. During the course of the experiment, the human
subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment
to an end if he has reached the physical and mental
state where continuation of the experiment seems
to him to be possible.
Principles of Nuremburg Code
10. During the course of the experiment, the
scientist in charge prepared to terminate the
experiment at any stage, if he has probable cause to
believe, in the exercise of the good faith, superior
skill and careful judgment required of him that a
continuation of the experiment is likely to result in
injury, disability or death to the experimental
subject.
Public Policy
3rd stage of the development of bioethical inquiry
Accentuates the participatory aspect of decision making in a
democratic set-up with regards to the formulation of public
policies for the benefit of all
Consulting people through surveys, meetings, conferences,
convocations about their opinions and views on particular
bioethical issues
PRINCIPLES IN ETHICS
Principle of Beneficence
-“ Do good and produce good”
-The practice of nursing of doing acts of goodness, kindness and charity

Principle of Non-Maleficence
-“Do no harm”
-Stresses that harm or pain should not be inflicted upon others regardless
of status and irrespective of their religious belief and party affiliations.
PRINCIPLES IN ETHICS
Principle of Autonomy
-“ Right to self-determination”
-Mandates strong sense of personal responsibility for one’s life
-One should choose what one wishes to be and should take
responsibility for that choice
PRINCIPLES IN ETHICS
Principle of Justice
- “Be Fair”
-Means rendering of what is due or merited
-Ex: A physician acts justly if and when the patients right are
respected and act of injustice if one’s duty to the patient is
neglected.
PRINCIPLES IN ETHICS
Golden Rule
-“Do unto others what you would like others do unto you”
-Confucius
Principle of Totality
-“ the whole is greater than its parts”
Principle of Fidelity
- “ Keep your promises!”
PRINCIPLES IN ETHICS
Principle of Double Effect
- Faced in situation which have good and bad effects where you
promote good that involve with some expected harm
•Action must be morally good
•Good effect must not come from an evil action
•Good effect must be greater than the bad effect
PRINCIPLES IN ETHICS
Principle of Veracity
-“Telling the truth”

Principle of Epikia
-“ In every rule there is an exemption”
 Principle of Inviobility of Life
-“ Respect for the life”
Principle of Stewardship
- “ Respect for the body”