TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

Engr. Randy G. Policarpio

 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

 DEFINITION:
 The configuration or shape and roughness of the ground is referred to as
topography or hypsography. – LA PUTT, Juny P.
 Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science comprising the
study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable
astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. It is also
the description of such surface shapes and features (especially their
depiction in maps). The topography of an area could also mean the
surface shape and features themselves.
 In general, topography is concerned with local detail in general, including
not only relief but also natural and artificial features, and even
local history and culture. This meaning is less common in America, where
topographic maps with elevation contours have made "topography"
synonymous with relief. The older sense of topography as the study of
place still has currency in Europe. - WIKIPEDIA
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

 OBJECTIVES
 An objective of topography is to determine the position of any
feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal
coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude.
 Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform
patterns are also part of the field.
 A topographic study may be made for a variety of reasons:
military planning and geological exploration have been primary
motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information
about terrain and surface features is essential for the planning
and construction of any major civil engineering, public works, or
reclamation projects.
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

 THE REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF

 METHODS:
1. SPOT HEIGHTS
2. HACHURES [n. ha-shoo r, hash-oo r; v. ha-shoo r]
3. FORM LINES
4. CONTOUR LINES
5. LAYER TINTING
6. SHADING
7. RELIEF MODELS
8. RIDGE AND STREAM LINING
9. SUBAQUEOUS CONTOUR
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

1. SPOT HEIGHTS
 The elevations of important features and critical points such as road junctions,
peaks, summits, sags and highway crossings are indicated on the map and are
known as spot heights or spot elevations.

 Spot heights are used to show the exact height of the land at a particular point.
Spot heights are depicted using a dot (or triangle) and a corresponding number,
which represents the altitude (height above sea level) at that point. While spot
heights provide accuracy in elevation, they do not provide much information
about the shape of the land. This is why they are often used in conjunction with
hill shading, layer tinting and contour lines.
SPOT HEIGHTS
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
2. HACHURES [n. ha-shoo r, hash-oo r; v. ha-shoo r]
 Hachures are an older mode of representing relief. They show orientation of
slope, and by their thickness and overall density they provide a general sense
of steepness. Being non-numeric, they are less useful to a scientific survey than
contours, but can successfully communicate quite specific shapes of terrain.
 Hachure representation of relief was standardized by the Austrian topographer
Johann Georg Lehmann in 1799. Hachures may be combined with other ways
of representing relief, like shades, the result being a shaded hachure map.
 Hachures are strokes (short line segments or curves) drawn in the direction of
the steepest slope (the aspect direction). Steeper slopes are represented by
thicker, shorter strokes, while gentler slopes are represented by thinner,
longer and farther apart strokes. A very gentle slope or flat areas, like the top
of a hill, are usually left blank.
 The hachures are traditionally monocolour, usually black, gray or brown. Using
two complementary colours for the hachures on a neutral background colour
(e.g. black and white lines on gray map colour) would give a shading effect as if
the relief were illuminated.
HACHURES
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

3. FORM LINES
 Form lines are not measured from any datum
plane.
 Form lines have no standard elevation and give
only a general idea of relief.
 Form lines are represented on a map as dashed
lines and are never labeled with representative
elevations.
FORM LINES
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

4. CONTOUR LINES
 The most widely used method of quantitatively
representing hills, mountains, depressions, and ground
surface undulations on a two-dimensional sheet of
paper is by contour lines or isohypses.
 A topographic map containing contour lines shows not
only the elevations of points on the ground, but also the
shape of the various topographic features.
CONTOUR LINES
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

5. LAYER TINTING
 Layer tinting uses different colours (or shades) to represent
different heights. It is a mapping convention for darker
colours to signify greater height. When using layer tinting,
green is often used for low land, yellow for higher land and
brown for the highest land.
 Layer tinting is most commonly found on physical maps.
While layer tinting is useful, it does not show the detailed
shape of the land.
 LAYER TINTING

 Hypsometric Tinting
A method of showing relief on
maps and charts by coloring in
different shades those parts that lie
between different levels. Also
called layer tinting. Sometimes
referred to as elevation tint,                                 

altitude tint, and layer tint, color

gradients, and gradient tints.
                                                            

 Altitude Tint
A method of showing relief on
maps and charts by coloring
different levels in different
shades. The basic shades are
those of brown. The darker the
shade, the higher is the height
above sea level. The altitudes
represented by each tint are
indicated on the maps and
charts. Sometimes referred to
as elevation tint or layer tint.
LAYER TINTING
LAYER TINTING
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

6. SHADING
Hill shading resembles a light and shadow effect.
Valleys and the sides of mountains appear as
though they are cast in shadow. This is a visually
striking method, which is ideal for providing an
overall view of the relief of an area. Hill shading,
however, does not show height which means that
it is no more accurate than hachuring.
SHADING
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
7. RELIEF OR TERRAIN MODEL
 Cartographic terrain or relief models are three-
dimensional representations of a part of the earth's
surface. They convey an immediate and direct
impression of a landscape and are much easier to
understand for most people than two-dimensional.
 There are a lot of applications for relief models, such
as for teaching and education on all levels of training:
for primary schools as well as for universities, in the
army just as for informing the public about
infrastructure projects; but also to facilitate urban
and regional planning or to study geological and
geomorphological phenomena.  
RELIEF OR TERRAIN MODEL
 RELIEF OR TERRAIN MODEL

 Relief types

Beside the 'normal' terrain model, a lot of

different relief types exist, depending on the
purpose and the production technique.
 Relief Types

Tactile maps for the blind

Urban reliefs
 Relief Types

Relief globes

Reliefs of caves
Relief Types

Glass reliefs
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

8. RIDGE AND STREAM LINING

A valley is an elongated depression in the
landscape that is formed by the action of water
(V-shaped) or carved out by glaciers (U-
shaped). Valley bottoms are represented by "U"
or "V" shaped contour lines with their closed
end pointing towards higher elevation.
RIDGE AND STREAM LINING

Valley Contour Lines

 RIDGE AND STREAM LINING

 Gully - Couloir Contour Lines

Gully is a channel or ditch formed by water erosion.
Couloir \kül-ˈwär\ is a steep gorge or gully formed on the
mountain side. Gullies are represented by "U" or "V"
shaped contour lines with their closed end pointing
towards higher elevation. U-shaped contours represent
more rounded gullies, while V-shaped contours are used
for narrower gullies. You can easily determine the
direction of flow of streams in gullies and draws in a topo
map by noting the direction to which the contour lines
point; naturally the stream flow is from higher elevation
towards lower elevation.
 RIDGE AND STREAM LINING
 Ridge - Arete - Spur Contour Lines
A ridge is a landform feature characterized by a continuous
elevational crest with sloping sides. Arête \ə-ˈrāt\ is a narrow
ridge formed by glacial erosion. A spur is a lateral ridge
projecting from the mountain or the main ridge crest. A spur
is usually formed by the two roughly parallel streams eroding
gullies (draws) down the face of the mountain from the ridge
line. Ridges are represented by "U" or "V" shaped contour
lines with their closed end pointing towards lower elevation.
U-shaped contours indicate broader ridges, while V-shaped
contours represent narrower and sharper ridge lines. Aretes
and spurs are often generally referred to as ridges in
backcountry recreation.
Ridge - Arete - Spur Contour Lines
Ridge - Arete - Spur Contour Lines
Ridge - Arete - Spur Contour Lines
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

9. SUBAQUEOUS CONTOURS
The portrayal of relief of the ground underwater is
done by using depth curves or subaqueous
contours. They are not depression contours
because they are numbered as the water depths
grow deeper, and they are based on the low water
datum rather than the mean sea level datum of
contours.
SUBAQUEOUS CONTOURS