Instrumentation and Control I (INCT101)

Subject overview and Instrumentation

Systems

Week 1
3 Feb 2020
1 period (1 hr)

1
Instrumentation and control I
Prescribed Recommended

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Instrumentation and Control Systems
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 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Aims
Instrumentation and Control Systems aims to give
the student:
an appreciation of the principles of industrial
instrumentation through a consideration of the
constituent elements of such systems and their
characteristics.
An insight into the principles involved in
control engineering through a consideration of
the basic elements involved in control systems,
their characteristics and representation by
models, and the behaviour of control systems
5
when subject to inputs.
 Performance outcomes
Chapter 1: Measurement systems.

Study and interpret performance terminology

used in the specifications of measurements
and instrumentation systems elements.
This chapter is designed as an introduction
to instrumentation and gives the commonly
used terms in instrumentation specification.
6
 Performance outcomes
Chapter 2: Instrumentation system elements.
Describe and evaluate sensors, signal
processing and display elements commonly
used with instrumentation used in the
measurement of position, rotational speed,
pressure, flow, liquid level and temperature.
This is the main chapter on instrumentation
and considers the elements used in a range
of different measurements. The terminology
introduced in Chapter 1 is used.
7
 Performance outcomes
Chapter 3: Instrumentation case studies

Explain how system elements are combined

in instrumentation for some commonly
encountered measurements.

This chapter concludes the group of

chapters on instrumentation, bringing
together the work of the previous chapters
in a discussion of case studies.
8
 Performance outcomes
Chapter 4: Control systems
Explain what is meant by open and closed-
loop control systems, the differences in
performance between such systems and
explain the principles involved in some
simple examples of such systems.
This chapter is designed as an introduction
to the concepts of control systems and the
open and closed-loop forms of control
systems. It is illustrated by discussions of
some case studies. 9
 Performance outcomes
Chapter 5: Process controllers
Describe the function and terminology of a
process controller and the use of
proportional, derivative and integral control
laws. Explain P, PD, PI,PID control and how
such a controller can be tuned.
This follows on from Chapter 4 and
discusses the control laws used for
process controllers and how they might be
tuned to give the required performance.
10
 Performance outcomes
Chapter 7: PLC systems
Describe the functions of logic gates and
the use of truth tables.
Describe the basic elements involved with
PLC systems and devise programs for them
to carry out simple control tasks.
This chapter is a look at programmable logic
controllers and how they can be programmed
by the use of ladder diagrams to carry out
discrete time control. Case studies are
discussed. 11
 1 Measurement systems
Study and interpret performance terminology
used in the specifications of instrumentation
Systems.
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Instrumentation Systems
1.3 Performance Terms
1.4 Reliability
1.5 Requirements
Problems
12
 1.1 Measurement systems
This chapter is an introduction to the
instrumentation systems used for making
measurements.

It Deals with the basic elements of such

systems and the terminology used to
describe their performance in use.

Objective: Study & understand performance

terminology used in the specifications of
instrumentation systems elements. 13
 What is Systems?
A system can be defined as an arrangement
of parts within some boundary which work
together to provide some form of output
from a specified input or inputs.
Environment

System Outputs

Inputs System boundary 14

How Systems are represented in Engineering?
A useful way of representing a system is
as a block diagram. The interest is in the
relationship between the input and output.

It is convenient to think of the system in

the box operating on the input to produce
the output rather than the internal science
of the system and how it operates. 15
1.2 Instrumentation Systems

16
What is the purpose of Instrumentation systems?

The purpose of an instrumentation system is to

give the user a numerical value corresponding
to the variable being measured.

For a variety of reasons, this numerical

value may not actually be the true value
of the variable being measured.
17
 Temperature Measurement system
In the case of the thermometer,
• There may be errors due to the limited
accuracy in the scale calibration, or
• Reading errors due to the reading falling
between two scale markings, or
• Perhaps errors due to the insertion of a
cold thermometer into a hot liquid,
lowering the temperature of the liquid and
so altering the temperature being
measured. 18
Instrumentation and Control I (INCT101)

Performance terms, Reliability and

Requirements

Week 1
4 Feb 2020
2 periods (2 hrs)

19
 Instrumentation systems
Examples of instrumentation systems:
(a) Pressure measurement,
(b) Speedometer,
(c) Flow rate measurement.

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What are the constituent elements of an
instrumentation system?

An instrumentation system for making

measurements has an input of the true
value of the variable being measured
and an output of the measured value. 21
The constituent elements of an
instrumentation system
Examples of Sensors

22
The constituent elements of an
instrumentation system
Examples of signal processing

23
The constituent elements of an
instrumentation system
Data presentation elements:
Meters, LED, LCD, VDU, Recorders, etc

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 The constituent elements of an
instrumentation system
Sensor: This is the element of the system which is
effectively in contact with the process for which a
variable is being measured and gives an output which
depends in some way on the value of the variable and
which can be used by the rest of the measurement
system to give a value to it.
Signal processor: This element takes the output from
the sensor and converts it into a form which is
suitable for display or onward transmission in some
control system.
Data presentation: This presents the measured value
in a form which enables an observer to recognise it.
25
 1.3 Performance terms
Static characteristics
These are the values given when steady-
state conditions occur, i.e. the values given
when the system or element has settled
down after having received some input.
Dynamic characteristics
The behavior between the time that the input
value changes and the time that the output
value given by the system, settles down to
steady-state value. 26
 1.3 Performance terms
Static characteristics
Accuracy Dead band / space
Precision Error
Sensitivity Hysteresis error
Stability Non-linearity error
Range Insertion error
Dynamic characteristics
Rise time Overshoot
Settling time Decay Ratio
Time to first peak Period of oscillations
27
 Accuracy and error
Accuracy is the extent to which the value
indicated by a measurement system or
element might be wrong.
Accuracy is the indicator of how close the
value given by a measurement system can
be expected to be the true value.
For example, a thermometer may have an
accuracy of ±0.1°C.
Accuracy is often expressed as a
percentage of the full-scale (FS) reading.
28
 Accuracy and error  
For example, a system might have an
accuracy of ±1% of FS.
If the full-scale (FS) reading is, say, 10 A,
then the accuracy is ±0.1 A.
The accuracy is a summation of all the
possible errors that are likely to occur, as
well as the accuracy to which the system
or element has been calibrated.
Calibration is the process of comparing the
output of a measurement system against
standards of known accuracy. 29
 Accuracy and error
The term error is used for the difference
between the result of the measurement and
the true value of the quantity being
measured, i.e.

error = measured value - true value

Thus if the measured value is 10.1 when

the true value is 10.0, the error is +0.1.

If the measured value is 9.9 when the true

value is 10.0, the error is -0.1. 30
 Accuracy and error   
Accuracy is the indicator of how close the
value given by a measurement system can
be expected to be the true value.

The error of a measurement is the

difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured.
31
 Accuracy and error   
Accuracy refers to the agreement between
a measured value and true value or correct
value, (is an expression of lack of error).

The error refers to the disagreement

between the result of the measurement and
the true value or accepted value of the
quantity being measured.
32
 Uncertainty  

Uncertainty in a stated measurement is the

interval of confidence around the measured
value such that the measured value is
certain not to lie outside this stated interval.

Uncertainty characterizes the range of

values within which the true value is
asserted to lie with some level of confidence.
33
 HW: Uncertainty and accuracy  

What is the difference between accuracy

and uncertainty?

“Although accuracy is desirable in

measurement, it is a source of confusion”
discuss the statement above.

Is accuracy qualitative or quantitative

concept? Support your answer.
34
 Range and Span
The range of variable of system is the limits
between which the input can vary.

For example, a resistance thermometer

sensor might be quoted as having a range
of -200oC to +800oC .

Span refers to the algebraic difference

between the upper-range value and the
lower-range value. E.g.

Span = 800oC – (-200oC) = 1000oC 35

 Examples
A digital thermometer reads from -120oC
to + 300oC. The accuracy is guaranteed
to plus or minus 2% of span. Determine
the possible temperature range when it
indicates 80oC. Ans(71.6oC to 88.4oC.)
A digital speedometer has a range 0 to 3000
rev/min with a guaranteed accuracy of plus
or minus 1% FS. Determine the possible
correct speed when it indicates 1500
rev/min. Ans(1470 rev/min to 1530 rev/min.)
36
 dead band or dead space

The term dead band or dead space is

defined as a range of input values for
which there is no output values.
Output reading

0 Input of variable
being measured
Dead space
37
 Hysteresis error
Hysteresis is the dependence of the output
of a system not only on its current input,
but also on its history of past inputs. The
dependence arises because the history
affects the value of an internal state.

To predict its future outputs, either its

internal state or its history must be known.
If a given input alternately increases and
decreases, a typical mark of hysteresis is
that the output forms a loop as in the figure
below. 38
 Hysteresis error
Decreasing
Instrument reading

Increasing

Hysteresis error

Value measured 39
 Problem 13
4

3.5

2.5
Voltmeter (mV)

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
40
Standard (mV)
 non-linearity error
The term non-linearity error is used for the
error that occurs as a result of assuming a
linear relationship between the input and
output over the working range.
Assumed

A graph of Measured value relationship

Actual
output plotted relationship
against input is
assumed to give Non-linearity
a straight line. error

True value 41
 Problem 12 (a)
70

60

50
Deflection in mm

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
42
Load in Kg
 Insertion error

When a cold thermometer is put in to a hot

liquid to measure its temperature, the
presence of the cold thermometer in the
hot liquid changes the temperature of the
liquid.

The liquid cools and so the thermometer

ends up measuring a lower temperature
than that which existed before the
thermometer was introduced.
43
 Insertion error
When an ammeter is inserted into a circuit
to make a measurement of the circuit
current, it changes the resistance of the
circuit and so changes the current being
measured.

44
Insertion error

45
Insertion error

46
Insertion error

47
Insertion error

48
 Insertion error
When a voltmeter is connected across a
resistor to measure the voltage across it,
then what we have done is connected a
resistance, that of the voltmeter, in parallel
with the resistance across which the
voltage is to be measured.

I R I R p.d. ( I – I ) R
V

p.d. IR I
(a) V

(b) Voltmeter
49
 Precision
A high precision measurement instrument
will give only a small spread of readings if
repeated readings are taken of the same
quantity.

A low precision measurement system will

give a large spread of readings.
For example:

High Precision: ( 20.1, 20.2, 20.1, 20.0, 20.1, 20.1, 20.0 ) [mm]

Low Precision: (19.9, 20.3, 20.0, 20.5, 20.2, 19.8, 20.3 ) [mm]
50
 Precision and accuracy
Precision should not be confused with accuracy
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured
value to a standard value or true value, while
Precision refers to the closeness of two or more
measurements to each other.
High precision does not mean high accuracy.
high precision instrument could have low accuracy.
Measured values Measured values Measured values

True value True value True value

(a) High precision, low accuracy (b) Low precision, low accuracy (c) High precision, high accuracy

51
Instrumentation and Control I (INCT101)

Week 2
10 March 2020
1 period (1 hr)

52
 Repeatability and Reproducibility
The terms repeatability and reproducibility are
ways of measuring precision in specific
contexts.
The term repeatability is the ability of a
measurement system to give the same value for
repeated measurements of the same value of a
variable.
The term reproducibility is the ability of a
measurement system to give the same output
when used with a constant input with the
system or elements of the system being
disconnected from its input and then
53
reinstalled.
 Repeatability and Reproducibility
For repeatability to be established, the
following conditions must be in place: the
same location, the same measurement
procedure, the same observer, the same
measuring instrument, under the same
conditions, and repeated over a short period
of time.
Reproducibility on the other hand, refers to
the agreement between the results of
measurements by different individuals, at
different locations, with different
instruments. 54
 Sensitivity
The sensitivity indicates how much the
output of an instrument system or system
element changes when the quantity being
measured changes by a given amount,
ΔOutput
Sensitivit y 
ΔInput
For example,
A thermocouple might have a sensitivity of
20 mV/°C and so give an output of 20 mV
for each 1ºC change in temperature.
55
 Sensitivity
Example

A spring balance has its deflection

measured for a number of loads and gave
the following results. Determine its
sensitivity.

Load in kg 0 1 2 3 4
Deflection in mm 0 10 20 30 40

56
 Sensitivity
40

35

30
Recall:
25 y  mx  c
Deflection in mm

20 Δy y
m
15
x
Δx
10
output
m
input
5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Load in Kg

The graph has a slope of 10 mm/kg

and so this is the sensitivity. 57
 Stability
The stability of a system is its ability to give
the same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time.

The term drift is often used to describe the

change in output that occurs over time.

The term zero drift is used for the changes

that occur in output when there is zero
input.
58
 Dynamic characteristics
The terms discussed so far, refer to the
static characteristics. These are the values
given when steady-state conditions occur,
i.e. the values given when the system or
element has settled down after having
received some input.
The dynamic characteristics refer to the
behaviour between the times that the input
value changes and the time that the value
given by the system or element settles
down to the steady-state value. 59
 Dynamic characteristics

Steady-state

Meter reading
reading
The graph
shows how the
reading of an The meter pointer
ammeter might oscillates before
change when settling down to give
the current is the steady-state
switched on. reading.

60
0 Time
 Dynamic characteristics
The following terms are commonly used for
dynamic characteristics
P
normalized controlled variable

1.4
1.2 a
1.05
c
1.0
0.95

0.8 tr = rise time

tp = time to first peak
0.6 ts = settling time
b
0.4 a /b = overshoot
c /a = decay ratio
0.2 P = period of oscillation
0.0
0 tr tp 5 10 ts 15 20 25 30 61
time units
 Dynamic characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the
instrument, which are changes rapidly
with time.

The various dynamic characteristics are:

• Speed of response
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error

62
 1.4 Reliability
The reliability of a measurement system, or
element in such a system, is defined as
being the probability that it will operate to
an agreed level of performance, for a
specified period, subject to specified
environmental conditions.

The agreed level of performance might be

that the measurement system gives a
particular accuracy.

63
 Reliability
The probability of a particular event occurring
is defined as being:
number of occurences of the event
probability 
total number of trials
A probability of 1 means a certainty that the
event will take place every time.
The closer the probability is to 1 the more
frequent an event will occur.
The closer it is to zero the less frequent it will
occur. 64
 Reliability
The reliability of a measurement system is
likely to change with time as a result of
perhaps springs slowly stretching with
time,

Resistance values changing as a result of

moisture absorption, wear on contacts and
general damage due to environmental
conditions.

For example, just after a measurement

system has been calibrated, the reliability65
should be 1.
 Reliability
However, after perhaps six months the
reliability might have dropped to 0.7.

Thus the system cannot then be relied on to

always give the required accuracy of
measurement,

It typically only giving the required accuracy

seven times in ten measurements, seventy
times in a hundred measurements.
66
 Reliability
A high reliability system will have a low
failure rate.
Failure rate is the number of times during
some period of time that the system fails to
meet the required level of performance,
i.e.:
number of failures
failure rate 
number of systems observed  time observed

67
 Reliability
A failure rate of 0.4 per year means that in
one year,

if ten systems are observed, 4 will fail to

meet the required level of performance.

If 100 systems are observed, 40 will fail to

meet the required level of performance.
68
 Reliability
Example
The failure rate for a pressure measurement
system used in factory A is found to be 1.0
per year while the system used in factory B
is 3.0 per year.
Which factory has the most reliable pressure
measurement system?

The higher the reliability the lower the failure

rate.
69
 Reliability
Thus factory A has the more reliable
system. The failure rate of 1.0 per year
means that if 100 instruments are
checked over a period of a year, 100
failures will be found, i.e. on average
each instrument is failing once.
The failure rate of 3.0 means that if 100
instruments are checked over a period of
a year, 300 failures will be found, i.e.
instruments are failing more than once in
the year. 70
Instrumentation and Control I (INCT101)

Week 2
11 March 2020
1 period (1 hr)

71
 1.5 Requirements

The main requirement of a measurement

system is fitness for purpose.
This means that if, for example, a length of a
product has to be measured to a certain
accuracy that the measurement system is
able to be used to carry out such a
measurement to that accuracy.
For example, a length measurement system
might be quoted as having an accuracy of
±1 mm. 72
 Requirements
This would mean that all the length values it
gives are only guaranteed to this accuracy,
e.g. for a measurement which gave a length
of 120 mm the actual value could only be
guaranteed to be between 119 and 121 mm.
If the requirement is that the length can be
measured to an accuracy of ±1 mm then the
system is fit for that purpose. If, however,
the criterion is for a system with an
accuracy of ±0.5 mm then the system is not
fit for that purpose. 73
 Requirements
In order to deliver the required accuracy,
the measurement system must have
been calibrated to give that accuracy.

Calibration is the process of comparing

the output of a measurement system
against standards of known accuracy.

74
 Calibration
Calibration is the process of comparing the
output of a measurement system against
standards of known accuracy.
The standards may be other measurement
systems which are kept especially for
calibration duties or some means of
defining standard values.
In many companies some instruments and
items such as standard resistors and cells
are kept in a company standards
department and used solely for calibration
75
purposes.
 Calibration
Calibration should be carried out using
equipment which can be traceable back to
national standards with a separate calibration
record kept for each measurement instrument.

This record is likely to contain a description of

the instrument and its reference number, the
calibration date, the calibration results, how
frequently the instrument is to be calibrated
and probably details of the calibration
procedure to be used, details of any repairs or
modifications made to the instrument, and any
limitations on its use. 76
 Calibration
The equipment used in the calibration of an instrument
in everyday company use is likely to be traceable back
to national standards in the following way:

1 National standards are used to calibrate National

standard
standards for calibration centres.
2 Calibration centre standards are used to Calibration
calibrate standards for instrument centre
standard
manufacturers.
3 Standardised instruments from In-company
instrument manufacturers are used to standards

provide in-company standards.

4 In-company standards are used to Process
instruments
calibrate process instruments. 77
 Calibration
There is a simple traceability chain from the
instrument used in a process back to national
standards. E.g. a glass bulb thermometer:

1 National standard of fixed National

thermodynamic temperature points. standard

2 Calibration centre standard of a

platinum resistance thermometer with Calibration
centre
an accuracy of ±0.005ºC. standard

3 An in-company standard of a platinum

resistance thermometer with an In-company
standards
accuracy of ±0.01ºC.
4 The process instrument of a glass bulb Process
thermometer with an accuracy of ±0.1ºC. instruments
78
 Calibration
The national standards are defined by
international agreement and are maintained
by national establishments, e.g. the National
Physical Laboratory in Great Britain and the
National Bureau of Standards in the United
States.
The kilogram, is defined as being the mass
of an alloy cylinder (90% platinum-10%
iridium) of equal height and diameter, held at
the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Sèvres in France. Duplicates of
this standard are held in other countries. 79
 Calibration
The metre, is defined as the length of the
path travelled by light in a vacuum during a
time interval of duration 1/299 792 458 of a
second.
The ampere, is defined as that constant
current which, if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross-section, and
placed one metre apart in a vacuum, would
produce between these conductors a force
equal to 2 x 10-7 N per metre of length. 80
 Examples
The block diagram shows how a flow
measuring system works. The input is flow
rate in litres/s and the output is air pressure in
bars. Calculate the output of the system in bar
when the input is 1.5 litres/s. Ans(0.72 bar)

A pressure gauge has a range of 0 to 80 bar

and is guaranteed to be accurate to within ±4%
FS. Calculate the possible pressure range
when the gauge indicates 50 bar.
Ans(46.8 to 53.2 bar) 81
Instrumentation and Control I: HW 1: 10 Feb 20
In completion of this study, you should be able
to explain and use the following basic
relationships used in Instrumentation
Technology: Transfer Function, Linearity,
Accuracy, inaccuracy, uncertainty, Sensitivity,
Resolution, current signal & Significate figures.
Recommended Textbook: Process Control Instrumentation
Technology 8th edition: Chapter 1, Section 6.2, 6.3 and 8.1.

Study: Examples: 7,8,9,10,12,13,14, on pgs: 25 to 32.

Problems: 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, on pg 47.
*Example: 16, 17 on pg: 40 to 41
*Problems: 32 on pg: 48. 82
 Summary
This Chapter presents an overview of
Instrumentation system elements and the
terminology used in the specification of
instrumentation system elements.

Subsequent chapters will examine

instrumentation system elements in more
detail. 83