Metallurgical Failure analysis

By Dr . Yahya Waqad
?How do flaws in a material initiate failure •
How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different •
?material classes compare
?How do we estimate the stress to fracture •
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature •
?affect the failure stress

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

.from waves
Adapted from chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 8, Callister 7e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
.thermal loading .loading from walking
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National .Callister 7e
Semiconductor Corporation.)
2
 Introduction
Mechanical failure can be defined as the inability
of a component to function properly- not to
mention fracture.

Therefore, Failure analysis can be viewed as the

examination of these failed components and of
the failure situation in order to determine the
cause of this failure; in order to determine the
mechanism and cause of failure and then provide
the solutions to prevent it.
 Causes of failure
Metals usually fail by one or more of the
following mechanisms:

1- Failure by inelastic action at atmospheric

temperatures.
2- Failure by creep or rupture at elevated
temperatures.
3- Failure by fatigue.
4- Failure by corrosion.
These failures took place as a result of one of
the following errors:

1- Misuse: the component is placed under conditions for which it was not
designed.

2- Assembly errors and improper maintenance: leaving off bolt or

using incorrect lubricant*. It should be pointed out that failure may be
caused by other parts of the system not functioning properly; thereby
placing the component that failed under conditions for which it was not
designed. Thus failure of a component may point to a problem elsewhere
in the system.
3- Design errors : this a very common cause of
failure

In this context the following aspects are considered to

be specified by the design process:

• Size and shape of the part.

• Material: chemical composition and treatment
necessary to achieve the properties.
• Properties: resistance to corrosion and stress
concentrations.
The following table shows that improper material selection is
a common problem in engineering industry:

% Origin
38 Improper selection of the material
15 Fabrication defects
15 Faulty heat treatment
11 Mechanical design fault
8 Unforeseen operating conditions
6 Inadequate environment control
5 Improper or lack of inspection and quality control
2 Material mix up
And the following table shows that improper
maintenance is the main problem in aircraft filed
components:

% Origin
44 Improper maintenance

17 Fabrication defects

16 Design deficiencies

10 Abnormal service damage

7 Defective material
Concerning faulty design the causes of failure is one of
following:
i- Ductile failure : excess deformation, elastic or plastic;
tearing or shear fracture.

ii- Brittle fracture: from flaw or stress raiser of critical

size. (appendix A)
.
iii- Fatigue failure: load cycling, strain cycling, thermal
cycling, corrosion fatigue, rolling contact fatigue,
fretting fatigue. (appendix B)
 Continued

iv- High temperature failure: creep, oxidation, local

melting, wrapping. (appendix C)

v- Excessively stress raiser inherent in the design.

vi- Excessively stress raiser inherent in the design

.
vii- Mistake in design on the basis on static tensile
properties instead of considering the resistance to each
possible failure mode.
 Fracture mechanisms
• Ductile fracture
– Occurs with plastic deformation
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation
– Catastrophic

11
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
:Classification •
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
:behavior Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

.Callister 7e

AR or %EL% Large Moderate Small

Ductile • :Ductile Brittle:

fracture is usually warning before No
!desirable fracture warning

12
 Example: Failure of a Pipe
:Ductile failure •
one piece--
large deformation--

:Brittle failure •
many pieces--
small deformation--

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
.permission

13
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces
Intergranular • Intragranular •
)between grains( S. Steel 304 )within grains(
(metal) S. Steel 316
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
mm 160
mm 4 National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
)polymer( )ceramic(
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
.Sons, Inc., 1996 Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
mm 3
mm 1
Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.(
14
).3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119
 Ideal vs Real Materials
:Stress-strain behavior (Room T) •

s perfect mat’l-no flaws TS << TS

E/10 engineering perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
-- the longer the wire, the Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
-- flaws cause premature failure. Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
.and Sons, Inc., 1996
-- Larger samples contain more flaws!

15
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Results from crack propagation
• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a 
 m  2o    K t o
 t 

t
where
t = radius of curvature
so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip

.Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e

16
 Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

.Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e

17
 Engineering Fracture Design
!Avoid sharp corners •
so
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = σ ma
xσ0
w
smax 2.5

h
,r
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius

Adapted from Fig.

1.5
.8.2W(c), Callister 6e
Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.(
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
).1943
1.0
0 0.5 1.0 r/h
sharper fillet radius

18
 Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
• A plastic material deforms at the tip, “blunting” the crack.
deformed
region
brittle plastic

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy

19
 When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if above critical stress
1/ 2
i.e., sm > sc  2E s 
c   
or Kt > Kc  a 

where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack
– Kc = sc/s0

For ductile => replace gs by gs + gp

where gp is plastic deformation energy
20
 Fracture Toughness
/Graphite
/Metals /Composites
/Ceramics Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C )fibers ||( 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys ,Based on data in Table B5
K Ic MPa · m( 0.5 )

.Callister 7e
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y 2 O 3ZrO/ 2 )p( 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C )fibers ( 1 :(vol. fraction of reinforcement)
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int., )%55vol( .1
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 .Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 )p( 4 Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc., )%vol 55( .2
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 .Waltham, MA
5 Al oxide PET P.F. Becher et al., Fracture Mechanics )%vol 30( .3
4 Si nitride of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press (1986). pp. 61-
PP .73
3 PVC .Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO .4
S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of )%vol 30( .5
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
2 PC
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
.ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992
F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci. )%20vol( .6
.Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82
1 >100<
Si crystal PS Glass 6
>111<
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete 21
0.5
 Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:

=K ≥ Kc Y a
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!

Result 1: Max. flaw size-- Result 2: Design stress--

.dictates design stress .dictates max. flaw size
2
Kc 1  K c 

design  amax 
Y amax   Ydesign 

amax
s
fracture fracture
no no
amax
fracture fracture s
22
 Design Example: Aircraft Wing
Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5 •
...Two designs to consider •
Design A Design B
largest flaw is 9 mm-- use same material--
failure stress = 112 MPa-- largest flaw is 4 mm--
Kc ? = failure stress--
...Use • c 
Y amax
.Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs •
:Result--
MPa 112 mm 9 mm 4

c amax A  c amax B

:Answer (c )B  168 MPa
!Reducing flaw size pays off •
 23
 Loading Rate
...Increased loading rate • Why? An increased rate •
increases sy and TS -- gives less time for
decreases %EL -- dislocations to move past
.obstacles
s
TS e
sy larger

e
TS
smaller

sy
e
24
 Impact Testing
:Impact loading • )Charpy(
severe testing case --
makes material more brittle --
decreases toughness --

Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),

Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

25
 Temperature
...Increasing temperature •
increases %EL and Kc--
...Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT) •

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

( High strength materials s y )E/150 >

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

.Callister 7e
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
26
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic •
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D.
Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.)
.Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp •
WWII: Liberty ships •
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
27
 Relating faults to material:
a-Ingot defects:
1- Gas entrapment resulting in porosity.
2- Blowholes resulting in large spherical holes near the surface of
the ingot.
3- Shrinkage cavity: pipe at the ingot top due to metal shrinking.

b-Defects in casting:
1- Metallic projections consisting of fins, flash, or massive
projections…
2- Cavities…
3- Discontinuities such as cracks….
4- Defective surfaces such as surface fold….
5- Incomplete casting such as misruns….
6- Incorrect dimensions or shapes due to some factors such as
improper shrinkage allowance….
Stress strain curves
Note the onset of failure in the specimen

Point 2 is the yield point and 3 necking and fracture

 Failure prevention
Early in its history, MFPG recognized this as
a complex process and that there are many
ways to prevent mechanical failures in
service. These actions include but are
not limited to:
• Developing better design techniques
• Improving reliability predictions
• Providing more complete materials
information.
 Continued

• Better understanding of the failure process

• Improved quality control
• Effective maintenance
• Improved diagnostics
• Cleanliness
• Lubrication/wear reduction
• Improved failure analyses
• Feedback of analysis results
 
The 1995 MFPG committee designations
were:
• Diagnostics and prognostics
• Failure analysis
• Life extension and durability
• Sensor technology
For example, predictive maintenance, a subset of
condition-based maintenance, involves diagnosis
and prognosis.
 Continued

• At the same time, effective application of

maintenance philosophy is a proven technique
for extending the life of machinery
Importance of mechanical failure analysis
One of the largest risks to safe, economic
ship operation is an unexpected failure at
sea.
A serious failure, resulting in an emergency
dry-docking and major repairs, may cost
millions of dollars. Although this risk can be
managed through classification and
planned maintenance, unforeseen failures
may still occur from time to time.
 Continued

• Repeat failures can be avoided by

professional failure investigation and fault
diagnosis, which can be very cost-effective
in many cases, although it should only be
instigated where there is good reason to do
so. Our team of investigators is on hand
whenever required.
Diagnosing faults:
The diagnosis of engineering failure is an art that is
acquired over many years by investigation engineers.
One should note that:
* A prerequisite for diagnosis is to enter an
investigation with an open mind no matter how
similar it appears to be with other exercises
undertaken in the past.
* Minor changes in environmental circumstances,
loading, manufacturing or detail design can bring
entirely new perspectives and subtle twists to an
otherwise familiar failure scene.
 Continued

* Nevertheless, initial impressions, indications and

signs, provided that they are rigorously challenged in
the hypothesis testing procedure, can be extremely
valuable in the initial stages of an investigation.
* Diagnosis usually starts with the formulation of a
hypothesis about the cause of a failure, against which
the various facts of the case are tested. If one fact is
found not to fit, then the hypothesis is either rejected
or modified: fault diagnosis is an iterative process.
The initial working hypothesis is formulated
from various sources, including:
• Accounts of the failure by the owners of the
problem and those close to it.
• viewing the evidence first hand.
• considering engineering and environmental
principles.
• Service records and how these relate to
similar types of components or systems.
• The investigator’s experience of previous
case histories.
Investigation and modeling:
From an initial working hypothesis, a suitable
instrumentation fit and trials programmed may be
prepared, sometimes in the form of a pilot or
exploratory investigation.
Alternatively, a theoretical model may be derived to
test the validity of the hypothesis. In either case, a
metallurgical investigation of the failed component
usually proceeds in parallel with information gained
from the other lines of enquiry as they become
available.
 Testing and inspection
These tests are particularly important for
components whose failure or malfunction
has potentially serious implications, such
as bodily injury or fatality. Typical
examples of such failures include cables
breaking, switches malfunctioning,
brakes failing, turbine blade failing, and
welded joints failing. Here are a
description of the various methods that
are commonly used:
 Continued

1- Nondestructive testing (NDT)

This test is carried out in such a way that

product integrity and surface texture remain
unchanged. These techniques generally
require considerable operator skill.
There are 9 types of such tests, we
will present a brief description to
each:

i- Liquid-penetrants technique: fluids such as

fluorescent penetrants which fluoresce
under ultraviolet light when applied to
surfaces reveal the cracks as small as 0.1
micrometer. And there is the visible
penetrants, using dyes usually red, which
appear as bright outlines on the surface.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is
applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to
seep into surface breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the
part.
• A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped
penetrant out the defect and spread it on the surface
where it can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The
penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye
and the inspection is done under UV light to increase
test sensitivity.
 Continued

ii-Magnetic-particle inspection technique:

where ferromagnetic particles are placed on
the surface of the part. When a magnetic field
is applied a discontinuity (defect) on the
surface causes the particles to gather visibly
around it.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are
then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux
leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity.
This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions.
Magnetic Particle Crack Indications
 Continued

iii- Ultrasonic inspection: ultrasonic beam

travels through the part. And internal defects ,
such as cracks, interrupts the beam and
reflects back a portion of the ultrasound
energy.
 Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and
.they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can
visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of
features that reflect sound. f

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 10 plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
 Continued

• iv-Acoustic emission technique: detecting

signals generated by the workpiece itself
during plastic deformation, crack initiation and
propagation, phase transformation, and
sudden reorientation of grin boundaries.
Continued

V- The acoustic impact technique:

tapping the surface and listening to
and analyzing the signals in order to
detect discontinuities and flaws.

Vi-Radiography: X-ray inspection to

detect internal flaws or variations in
density and thickness in the part.
Radiographic Images
 Continued

Vii- Eddy-current inspection method: based on

the principle of electromagnetic induction.
The part is placed in or adjacent to an
electric coil through which alternating current
flows at frequencies ranging from 6 MHZ to
60 MHZ. this will induce the eddy-currents in
the part. Defects in the part impede and
change the direction of eddy currents,
causing changes in the electromagnetic field.
 Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface
cracks but can also be used to make electrical conductivity and coating
thickness measurements. Here a small surface probe is scanned over
the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.
 Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material
 Continued

Viii- Thermal inspection: involves observing

temperature changes by contact - or
noncontact-type heat sensing devices.
Defects in the workpiece, such as cracks,
debonded regions in laminated structures,
and poor joints, cause change in the
temperature distribution.
 Continued

• Ix- Holography technique: creates a three-

dimensional image of the workpiece, using
an optical system. This technique is
generally used on simple shapes and
highly polished surfaces, and the image is
recorded on a photographic film.
 Common Application of NDT
• Inspection of Raw Products
• Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
• In-Services Damage Inspection
 Inspection of Raw Products
• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions,
• etc.
 Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating
• etc.
 Inspection For
In-Service Damage

• Cracking
• Corrosion
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage
• etc.
 Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices and
visual inspections are used to find
broken wires and other damage
to the wire rope that is used in
chairlifts, cranes and other lifting
devices.
Power Plant Inspection
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current probes
into heat exchanger tubes to check
for corrosion damage.

Pipe with damage Probe

Signals produced by
various amounts of
.corrosion thinning
 Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect
the walls of large above
ground tanks for signs
of thinning due to
corrosion.

Cameras on long
articulating arms
are used to
inspect
underground
storage tanks for
damage.
 Aircraft Inspection
• Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find cracks and
corrosion damage during operation
of the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started at the
site of a lightning strike is shown
below.
 Jet Engine Inspection
• Aircraft engines are overhauled after
being in service for a period of time.
• They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used
to check many of the parts for cracking.
 Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel can
result in the rapid release of a large
amount of energy. To protect against
this dangerous event, the tanks are
inspected using radiography and
ultrasonic testing.
 Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to inspect
thousands of miles of rail to
find cracks that could lead to a
derailment.
 Bridge Inspection
• The US has 578,000 highway
bridges.
• Corrosion, cracking and other
damage can all affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in loss
of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual inspection
about every 2 years.
• Some bridges are fitted with
acoustic emission sensors that
“listen” for sounds of cracks
growing.
 Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to
prevent leaks that could damage the
environment. Visual inspection,
radiography and electromagnetic
testing are some of the NDT
methods used.

Remote visual inspection using a

.robotic crawler

Magnetic flux leakage inspection. This

device, known as a pig, is placed in the
pipeline and collects data on the
condition of the pipe as it is pushed
along by whatever is being
.transported .Radiography of weld joints
For More Information on NDT
The Collaboration for NDT
Education

www.ndt-ed.org

The American Society for

Nondestructive Testing

www.asnt.org
 Monitoring of the failure
Detection of faults before they actually occur is a critical
element of securing high reliability of any system. However,
prediction of an imminent fault has been a challenge for
engineers and scientists in the field of diagnoses and
analysis of failure trends. When some component begins to
deteriorate, intermittent incipient faults persist in the
system from as short a time as several days to as long as
several months. In this scenario, the characteristics
behavior would manifest itself progressively during the
incipient phase, leading to a fault condition.

A
 Continued

• The main purpose of failure prediction and

incipient fault detection, therefore, centers
on monitoring the system and
discriminating the symptoms of fault in the
system before breakdown.
• Hence it would be the first step to monitor
and analyze the trend of the partially
known parameters with actual faults.A
As an example we will consider a destruction
system:
In this scenario, as depicted in the following
schematic diagram, the feeder condition
monitoring and incipient fault detection execute
a closed- loop operation (feedback system) that
involves parameter processing, SCADA-
generated fault log analysis, and the
characteristic parameter identification by
matching the event log of the parameter with
the fault log. The term event here indicates
some abnormal activity or value that, when
occurring repeatedly, eventually leads to a fault.
The whole process of parameter evaluation
and identification parallels the incipient fault
detection activity, which monitors the
parameter identified by the evaluation and
identification process.
When a new and different parameter is
found that better matches the trend of the
event/fault lo, then the new parameter
would replace the previous parameter, and
the detection activity resume with the new
parameter.
 Continued

• The feedback process assures that the

incipient fault detection and feeder
condition monitoring can run, even under
changed environment of loads and
terrains, with the most relevant, cumulative
characteristic parameter.
As a solid example of how this is
accomplished we will investigate two field
examples:
The life of steam pipes in power stations
very much dependent upon the material
creep rate (parameter identified). A
problem is monitoring the steady state
creep rate as accesses to these pipes in
power station is difficult as the pipes are
heavily lagged and the network of pipes
are in compact installation.
 Continued

• Essential is that monitoring sensors are of a very

rugged design will be able to endure the
demanding conditions related to the
environment of high pressure steam pipes. It
has been necessary to devise a method that can
provide creep data for remnant life assessment
of pipes when a power generating plant is
closed down for periodic maintenance. This is to
use gauges the movement of which is measured
by a special – to – purpose optical system.
The gauges are located on pipes, bends and
other locations most susceptible to early
creep strain failure. Bothe circumferential
and axial strain rates are monitored to
provide for analysis to identify when pipes
are approaching their reliable end – of – life
point. This provides for planned replacement
of pipes as part of cost effective
management of power station.
 Continued

• The gauge system is developed by E.ON

ARCMAC is designed for measuring strain
which proved to be highly accurate.
• ARMAC developed other sensors (DIC) to
work on welding and other localized
fracture on the pipe network.
Another way of monitoring failure is the use of self
monitoring structural materials:
Cavitations: is the phenomena that occurs when the
fluid pressure is reduced to the local vapor pressure
and boiling occurs. Under such conditions vapor
bubbles form, grow, and then collapse, producing
shock waves, noise, and dynamic effects that leads
to the decreased performance and, frequently,
equipment failure. Engineers are concerned in the
possibility of cavitation, and they must design flow
systems to avoide potential problems.
• Cavitation typically occurs at locations where
the velocity is high usually in restrictions.
• The vapor bubbles forms in the restriction and
collapse as they move into a region of higher
pressure and swept downstream with the flow.
When the velocity is increased further, the
minimum pressure is still the locale vapor
pressure, but the zone of bubble formation is
extended further.
• In this case, the entire vapor pocket may
intermittently grow and collapse, producing
serious vibration problems. Sever damage that
occurred on a centrifugal pump impeller is
shown in the following figure, and serious
erosion produced by cavitation in the spillway
tunnel of Hoover dam is shown below.
Obviously cavitation should be avoided by
Proper design of equipment and structures and
by proper operational procedures.

A video of cavitation occurring in the region of a

marine propeller is shown here.
www.wiley.com/college/crowe
The cavitation index, σ, is defined as the
negative of the pressure coefficient where
cavitation index is based on the vapor
pressure,
However cavitations is also affected by
contaminant gases, turbulence, and viscosity.
Experimental studies reveal that very high
intermittent pressure, as high as 800MPa
develops in the vicinity of the bubbles when
they collapse; therefore if the bubbles close to
boundaries such as pipe walls, pump impellers,
valve casings, and dam spillway floors, they
can cause considerable damage.
Usually these damages occurs in the form of
fatigue failure brought about by the action of
millions of bubbles impacting against the
material surface over a long period of time,
thus producing a material pitting in the zone
of cavitation.
Water hammering
Whenever a valve is closed in a pipe, a positive
pressure ( pressure greater than the staedy-
state pressure ) wave is created upstream of
the valve and travels up the pipe at the speed
of sound. This pressure wave may be great
enough to cause pipe failure
Actually the pressure raise is given by
 Vibration and its effect on pipeline
performance
Monitoring of vibration is a well-known technique
for all type of rotating equipment. Most drivers
and driven equipment are fitted with vibration
monitoring equipment both for protection and for
prediction problems. In addition to permanently
installed vibration sensors, some pipeline
companies have vibration programs that entail
manual vibration monitoring using handheld
transducers.
The following table shed some light on problems encountered in pipelines due to
vibrations
Cause of failure
Bearing related problems: low-
stability-type bearing, excessive
bearing clearance, loose liners,
impurities in oil, improper oil
properties ( viscosity, temperature),
wrong bearing, poor lubrication
All of the above and also the follow:
loose retainers, too tight clearance,
wrong seal
Unit-design-related problems: critical
speed, loose coupling sleeves,
thermal gradients, shaft not
concentric, inadequate support
stiffness, pedestal or support
resonance, case distortion, thrust-
bearing or thrust balance
deficiencies, imbalance
Type of problem Vibration
frequency
Oil-whip resonance, friction-induced whirl, loose 0-40% running speed
seals, bearing damage, bearing support
resonance, case distortion
Loose bearing, loose seals, poor shrink fit, 60-100% rs
torsional critical
Imbalance, lateral critical, torsional critical, Running speed
transient torsional, foundation resonance, bearing
support resonance, bent shaft, bearing damage,
thrust -bearing damage, bearing eccentric, seal
rub, loose impeller, loose coupling, case
distortion, shaft out – of- round , case vibration.
 Appendix A:

Stress raisers
Fatigue and creep are two modes of low stress failure. A third
mode of failure is caused by the presence of ‘stress raisers’.
First investigated by Griffiths in the 1920s, these are
microscopic flaws or cracks which always exist, both on the
surface and internally, and result in an amplification or
concentration of the applied stress at the crack tip. In service,
the stress concentrators of importance are crack-like defects
and examples include:
discontinuities in soldered joints, and Cracks which have
grown by fatigue or stress-corrosion mechanisms.
It is usually possible to detect such defects, using
ultrasonic inspection or radiography, to determine the
maximum size of defect in the region of interest.

At positions far removed from cracks, the stress is just

the nominal stress, that is, the load divided by the
cross-sectional area, and this does not pose a problem
if the applied stress is below the elastic limit. However,
in the vicinity of small cracks or flaws, the situation can
be serious. Because of their ability to amplify an
applied stress in their locale, such flaws are called
‘stress raisers’.
Schematic representation of stress-raising defect
With reference to Figure 10, the maximum stress at the crack tip,
sm may be approximated by:

Where so is the applied stress, rt is the radius of curvature of

the crack tip and a represents the length of a surface crack or
half the length of an internal one. The ratio sm/so is termed the
stress concentration factor Kt and is a measure of the degree
of stress amplification at the tip of a small crack. While hairline
cracks (with a large length to crack tip ratio) are most
undesirable, stress amplification also occurs on a macroscopic
scale, for example, sharp corners in solder joints.
The effects of stress raisers are more significant in brittle than in
ductile materials. In ductile materials, plastic deformation allows
a more uniform distribution of the stress in the vicinity of the
stress raiser and the resultant stress concentration factor is
appreciably less than those in brittle materials.

In the 1920s, Griffith proposed that fracture occurs when the

theoretical cohesive strength is exceeded at the tip of one of the
numerous flaws existing in most materials. If no flaws were
present the fracture strength would be equal to the cohesive
strength of the material. Very small, virtually defect-free metallic
and ceramic whiskers have been grown with fracture strengths
approaching theoretical values.

In many engineering situations where there is a measure of

cyclical stressing (including electronic solder joints), we must be
aware that tiny, sub-critical cracks can grow and become critical.
Fast fracture will then occur.
 Appendix B:
Fatigue stresses
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in
materials subjected to fluctuating
stresses – for example, solder joints
under temperature cycling. Under these
circumstances, it is possible for failure to
occur at a stress level considerably
lower than the tensile or yield strength
for a static load.
 Continued

• The term ‘fatigue’ is used because this type of

failure normally occurs after a lengthy period
of repeated stress cycling. It is the single
largest cause of failure (approximately 90%) of
metallic materials, and polymers and ceramics
(other than glasses) are also susceptible to
this type of failure. Although failure is slow in
coming, catastrophic fatigue failures occur
very suddenly, and without warning.
Fatigue failure is brittle-like in nature – even in
normally ductile metals – in that there is very little, if
any, gross plastic deformation associated with failure.
The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of
cracks, and the fracture surface is usually
perpendicular to the direction of an applied stress.

A major problem with fatigue is that it is dominated by

design. Whilst it is possible to assess the inherent
fatigue resistance of a material, the effects of stress-
raisers such as surface irregularities and changes in
cross-section, as well as the crucial area of jointing
(solder joints!) can be a major problem.
Failure by fatigue is the result of processes of crack
nucleation and growth, or, in the case of components
which may contain a crack introduced during
manufacture, the result of crack growth only brought
about by the application of cyclical stresses. The
appearance of a fatigue fracture surface is distinctive
and consists of two portions, a smooth portion, often
possessing conchoidal, or ‘mussel shell’, markings
showing the progress of the fatigue crack up to the
moment of final rupture, and the final fast fracture
zone. This is shown in Figure 6.
Macroscopic image showing fatigue beachmarks (x6.5)

The bands visible in the smooth portion, are often referred to as

beachmarks. These beachmarks (so called because they resemble
ripple marks on a beach) are of macroscopic dimensions – they
can be observed with the unaided eye. Each beachmark band
represents a period of time over which crack growth occurred.
At higher magnifications, using a scanning electron
microscope, fatigue striations can be observed
(Figure 7). Each striation is thought to represent the
advance distance of the crack front during a single
load cycle.
Scanning electron microscope image of fatigue
striations (x1000)

An important point regarding fatigue failure is that beachmarks do

not occur on the region over which the final rapid failure occurs. This
region will exhibit either ductile or brittle failure – evidence of plastic
deformation being present for ductile, and absent for brittle failure.
The number of cycles that a component can
survive without failure depends on the stress
amplitude applied. Obviously, the greater the stress
amplitude the lower the number of cycles to failure
and this is reflected in Figure 8 which exhibits the
“Stress amplitude – Number of cycles to failure (or
S-N) curve” typical of non-ferrous materials such as
solders.
S-N curve for non-ferrous materials such as solders
 The fatigue strength is the maximum permitted stress
amplitude for a given number of cycles. The fatigue strength
of a solder joint is always less than the fatigue strength of
the basic material. This is because it is determined by:

the size and distribution of defects within

the solder alloy and the magnitude of the
stress concentration factor at the junction
of the solder alloy and the parent metal.

 
 
 Continued

This important topic will be examined more

closely later.
Corrosion fatigue is the development and
propagation of cracks in a material that is
subjected to alternating or fluctuating cycles
of load. The presence of a corrosive
environment will accelerate the formation
and growth of fatigue cracks, thus reducing
the fatigue life of the material.
 Q: Explain the difference between the fatigue
behavior of materials and that of
components?
Ans.
The fatigue performance of materials is
assessed on a polished, defect-free specimen
while that of components will include parameters
such as service surface finish, discontinuities
(such as solder joint interfaces) and environmental
issues, The former is a fundamental property of
the material while the latter is more useful in real
situations.
 Appendix C
Types of failure:
Fracture is the result of an applied stress and this
stress can be tensile, compressive, shear and/or
torsional. There are two fracture modes possible –
ductile and brittle – depending on the ability of the
material to experience plastic deformation.

Obviously we do not want failures to occur.

However, if they are inevitable, it is far better that we
have some warning – for example a gradual change
of dimension (strain) occurring in response to the stress
– instead of a sudden catastrophic failure with no
warning. When a material does strain significantly
before failure, it will exhibit a ductile fracture.
Ductile fracture:

Ductile fracture involves plastic deformation in

the vicinity of an advancing crack, and is a slow
process. It is stable, and will not continue unless
there is an increase in the level of applied stress. It
normally occurs in a trans- granular manner
(across the grains) in metals that have good
ductility and toughness. Often, a considerable
amount of plastic deformation – including necking
– is observed in the failed component. This
deformation occurs before the final fracture.
Ductile fractures are normally caused by
simple overloads or by applying too high a
stress to the material, and exhibit
characteristic surface features with a
significant portion of the fracture surface
having an irregular, fibrous face. They also
have a small shear lip, where the fracture
surface is at a 45° angle to the applied stress.
The shear lip, indicating that slip occurred,
gives the fracture the cup-and-cone
appearance shown in Figure 2. Simple
macroscopic observation of this fracture may
be sufficient to identify the ductile fracture
mode.
Macroscopic image of a ductile fracture
(x29.7)
Examination of the fracture surface at a high
magnification – using a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) – reveals a dimpled surface.
Under a normal tensile stress, these dimples
(Figure 3 left) are usually round or equiaxed
(having the same dimensions in all directions) –
while if shear stress has been dominant, the
dimples are oval-shaped or elongated, with the
ovals pointing towards the origin of fracture (Figure
3 right).
Microscopic images of ductile fractures
(x1000)
Brittle fracture:
In brittle fractures, cracks spread very rapidly, with
little or no plastic flow, and are so unstable that
crack propagation occurs without further increase
in applied stress. They occur in high strength
metals, in metals with poor ductility and toughness,
and in ceramics.

Even metals that are normally ductile may fail in a

brittle manner at low temperatures, in thick sections, at
high strain rates (such as impact), or when flaws play
an important role. Brittle fractures are frequently
observed when impact rather than overload causes
failure.
Brittle fracture can be identified by observing
the features on the failed surface. Normally, the
fracture surface is flat and perpendicular to the
applied stress in a tensile test. If a failure occurs
by cleavage, each fractured grain is flat and
differently oriented, giving a shiny, crystalline
appearance to the fracture surface (Figure 4).
 Macroscopic image of a brittle fracture (x6.5)

Initiation of a crack normally occurs at small flaws which cause a

concentration of stress. Normally, the crack propagates most easily
along specific crystallographic planes by cleavage. However, in some
cases, the crack may take an inter-granular (along the grain
boundaries) path, particularly when segregation or inclusions weaken
the grain boundaries (Figure 5). Note that a crack may propagate at a
speed approaching the speed of sound in the material!
Microscopic image of intergranular brittle
fracture (x1000)
 Appendix D
Creep

Materials are often placed in service at ‘relatively high

temperatures’ and exposed to static mechanical stresses.
These stresses are less than the yield strength of the
material but nevertheless can cause plastic deformation
to take place – particularly over a long period of service
time. This phenomenon is known as creep. Note that the
term ‘relatively high temperatures’ means high
homologous temperatures (Tservice/Tmelting) and is a
measure of how near the temperature is to the melting
point of the material concerned, as shown in Figure 9 of
Mechanical properties of metals.
So room temperature (20°C) is a low homologous
temperature for steel (melting point around
1600°C), but is a high homologous temperature for
tin-lead solder (melting point around 180°C).

Creep is observed in all material types – in metals it

only becomes important at temperatures greater
than about 0.4Tm (where Tm is the melting point in
Kelvin). Soft metals such as tin and lead creep at
room temperature while aluminium and its alloys
creep around 250°C. Steel creeps at about 450°C
while nickel-based alloys (nimonics) creep at
around 650°C. A typical creep curve is shown in
Figure 9.
Creep strain versus time graph
The temperature and length of service determines whether or not
creep must be considered as a possible mode of failure for a given
material component. For example one particular aluminum-copper
alloy was used for the forged impellers in the jet engine for the
Gloster Meteor aircraft. In this application, the temperature of
operation was up to 200°C and the stress was high enough to limit
the life to a few hundred hours. Clearly, in this case, 200°C is a
creep-producing temperature. The same alloy is used as the skin
for Concorde, and over most of this structure the temperature does
not exceed 120°C. However, the Concorde airframe is designed for
a life in service of 20,000–30,000 hours, and this is a long enough
period for 120°C to constitute a possible hazard. Creep is thus
important in both applications, even though the temperatures are
different.
 Combined creep and fatigue
Since neither fatigue nor creep while acting on their own
is fully understood, the mechanisms involved when they
act together are even less well understood. However:

There is evidence of a synergistic relationship i.e. the sum

of their joint effects is greater than their individual
contributions Factors of little importance to fatigue at
room temperature – such as frequency, wave shape and
recovery – can become important at high temperatures.
Similarly, the mode of failure alters from trans crystalline
to inter crystalline Uneven heating can lead to thermal
fatigue, while oxidation and corrosion result in
degradation of creep and fatigue resistance.  
 4.4 STRESS ANALYSIS:
► Figure 4.8a shows a general solid body loaded as
shown. Figure 4.8b is a slice thru Figure 4.8a oriented by
the surface normal.

Figure4.3
Figure4.4
Figure4.5
► The force distribution at a point will have components in the
normal and tangential directions, labeled as σ and τ,
respectively (Figure 4.8c).
► σ can be tensile (outward), or compressive (in to) the
surface.

4.5 CARTESIAN STRESS COMPONENTS

► Figure 4.9 shows the normal and shear stress on an
infinitesimal surface at point Q.
► The double subscripts for shear: the first subscript
indicates the direction of the surface normal, and the
second subscript is the direction of the stress.