Ch.

6: Communication,
Integration & Homeostasis
Goals
 Describe cell to cell communication
Electrical or Chemical only

 Explain signal transduction

 Review homeostasis

N.B.: Running Problem, Diabetes Mellitus

 Cell to Cell Communication
75 trillion cells (In Scientific Notation??)
4 basic methods of cell to cell communication (p 175):
1. Direct cytoplasmic transfer (Gap Junctions)
2. Contact dependant signals (Surface Molecules)
3. Short distance (local diffusion)
4. Long distance (through either chemical or electrical signals)
Cell receiving signal = ? receptors
 1. Gap Junctions for Direct
Signal Transfer
 Connexins from each cell form
connexon (channel)
 Gate open  cytoplasmic
bridges form functional
syncytium
 Transfer of electrical and
chemical signals (ubiquitous, but
particularly in heart muscle and
smooth muscle of GI tract)
 2. Contact-Dependent Signals

Require cell-cell contact

Surface molecules bind
CAMs – Cell Adhesion Molecules
Bidirectional Communication Possible
 3. Short distance (local diffusion)
Paracrines and Autocrines (Chemical signals secreted by
cells)
Para- = next to
Auto- = self
Mode of transport - diffusion (slow)
Histamine, cytokines, eicosanoids

Many act as both

Autocrine
 4. Long Distance Communication
Body has two control systems:
 Endocrine system communicates via
hormones
 Secreted where? Transported where and how?
 Only react with ____________

 Nervous system uses electrical (along the axon)

and chemical (at the synapse) signals (APs vs.
neurotransmitters and neurohormones)

Fig 6-2
 Cytokines for Local and Long
Distance Signaling
 Act as paracrines, autocrines or hormones
 Comparison to hormones (sometimes blurry):
 Broader target range
 Made upon demand (like steroids, no storage in
specialized glands)
 Involved in cell development and immune
response
 Terminology: A zoo of factors in a jungle of interactions
surrounded by deep morasses of acronyms and bleak deserts of
synonyms
 Signal Pathways
 Signal molecule (ligand)
 Receptor
 Intracellular signal
 Target protein
 Response
 Three Receptor Locations
Membrane,
Cytosolic or
Nuclear

 Lipophilic ligand:
 enters cell and/or nucleus
 Often activates gene
 Slower response
 Lipophobic ligand
 can't enter cell
 Membrane receptor
 Fast response
Fig 6-4
 Membrane Receptor Classes
1. Ligand - gated channel
2. Receptor enzymes
3. G-protein-coupled
4. Integrin
Direct Mechanisms via Ligand-gated
Channel: Nicotinic ACh receptor

Change in ion permeability

changes membrane
potential
 Signal
Transduction
 Activated receptor
alters intracellular
molecules to create
response
 First messenger 
transducer  amplifier
 second messenger

Fig 6-8
 Most Signal Transduction uses G-
Protein
G-Protein is a membrane-associated protein
that binds to GDP

 Hundreds of types known

 Bind GDP / GTP (name!)
 Activated G proteins
1. Open ion channels
2. Alter intracellular enzyme activity, e.g.: via adenyl cyclase
(amplifier)  cAMP (2nd messenger)  protein kinase
activation  phosphorylated protein
G - Protein mediated Signal Transduction
Muscarinic ACh receptor
 Epinephrine Signal Transduction

Compare to fig 6-11

 Other signal Molecules
 Not all are proteins
 Ca2+ is a common cytosolic messenger
 NO (nitric oxide) is a neurotransmitter
 Lipids:
 Leukotrienes cause contraction of bronchiolar
smooth muscle
 Prostanoids have several communicative roles,
e.g., inflammation
 Modulation of Signal Pathways
Receptors exhibit
Saturation, yet
Receptors can be up- or down-regulated (e.g. drug tolerance)
Specificity, yet
- Multiple ligands for one receptor: Agonists (e.g. nicotine) vs.
antagonists (e.g. tamoxifen)
- Multiple receptors for one ligand (see Fig 6-18)

Competition
Aberrations in signal transduction causes many diseases (table 6-3)
Many drugs target signal transduction pathway (SERMs, -blockers etc.)
 In Summary:
Receptors Explain Why

Chemicals traveling in bloodstream act

only on specific tissues
One chemical can have different effects
in different tissues
 Homeostasis and
“Homeodynamics”
Cannon's Postulates (concepts) of properties of
homeostatic control systems
1. Nervous regulation of internal environment
2. Tonic level of activity Fig 6-19
3. Antagonistic controls (insulin/glucagon)
4. Chemical signals can have different effects on
different tissues

Failure of homeostasis?
Tonic Control
 Control Pathways: Response and
Feedback Loops
Maintain homeostasis

 Local – paracrines and autocrines

 Long-distance
- reflex control
 Nervous
 Endocrine
 Cytokines
 Steps of Reflex
Control
Stimulus
Sensory receptor
Afferent path
Integration center
Efferent path
Effector (target
cell/tissue)
Response
 Receptors (or Sensors)
 Different meanings for “receptor”: sensory receptor
vs. membrane receptor
 Can be peripheral or central Fig 6-23

 Constantly monitor environment

 Threshold (= minimum stimulus necessary to initiate
signal)
 Afferent Pathway

From receptor to integrating center

Afferent pathways of nervous
system: ?
Endocrine system has no afferent
pathway (stimulus comes directly
into endocrine cell)
 Integrating Center
 Neural reflexes usually in the CNS;
endocrine integration in the endocrine
cell itself
 Receives info about change
 Interprets multiple inputs and compares
them with set-point
 Determines appropriate response (→
alternative name: control center)
 Efferent Pathway

From integrating center to

effector
NS  electrical and chemical
signals

ES  chemical signals
(hormones)
 Effectors
 Cells or tissues carrying out response
 Target for NS:
muscles and glands and some adipose tissues

 Target for ES:

any cell with proper receptor
 Responses at 2 levels:

1. Cellular response of target cell

 opening of a channel
 Modification of an enzyme etc...

2. Systemic response at organismal level

 vasodilation, vasoconstriction
 Lowering of blood pressure etc....
 Feedback Loops Modulate the
Response Loop
 Response loop is only half of reflex! 
Response becomes part of stimulus and feeds
back into system.
 Purpose: keep system near a set point
Fig 6-25
 2 types of feedback loops:
- feedback loops
+ feedback loops Fig 6-26
 The Body’s 2 Control Systems
 Variation in speed, specificity and duration of
action
 The two systems allow for 4 different types of
biological reflexes
1. Simple (pure) nervous
2. Simple (pure) endocrine
3. Neurohormone
4. Neuroendocrine (different combos)

Fig 6-30