TRANSISTORS:

INTRODUCTION

• transistor is a semiconductor device which transfers a weak

signal from low resistance circuit to high resistance circuit.
• It is a device that comes with three terminals, where a small
current at one terminal is used to control current at the other
terminals.
• The word trans means transfer property and istor means
resistance property offered to the junctions. 
• Transistors are mainly used for the amplification of electronic signals.
• Invented by American Physicists John Bardeen in 1947.
• Before the inception of transistors, vacuum tubes were used to control
the electronic signals. These vacuum tubes come with anode & cathode
arrangement and the potential difference across these ends produces the
electric current. In the later versions, a filament is added which is used
to provide heat to the cathode that directs the electrons towards the
anode side.
 Transistor Terminals
• The transistor has three terminals namely, emitter,
collector and base. The terminals of the diode are
explained below in details.
• Emitter – The section that supplies the large section of majority charge
carrier is called emitter. The emitter is always connected in forward biased
with respect to the base so that it supplies the majority charge carrier to the
base. The emitter-base junction injects a large amount of majority charge
carrier into the base because it is heavily doped and moderate in size.
• Collector – The section which collects the major portion of the majority
charge carrier supplied by the emitter is called a collector. The collector-
base junction is always in reverse bias. Its main function is to remove the
majority charges from its junction with the base. The collector section of
the transistor is moderately doped, but larger in size so that it can collect
most of the charge carrier supplied by the emitter.
• Base – The middle section of the transistor is known as the base.
The base forms two circuits, the input circuit with the emitter and
the output circuit with the collector. The emitter-base circuit is in
forward biased and offered the low resistance to the circuit. The
collector-base junction is in reverse bias and offers the higher
resistance to the circuit. The base of the transistor is lightly doped
and very thin due to which it offers the majority charge carrier to
the base.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

• If two individual signal diodes are joined togehter back-to-back, this will
give us two PN-junctions connected together in series which would share a
common Positve, (P) or Negative, (N) terminal. The fusion of these two
diodes produces a three layer, two junction, three terminal device forming the
basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.
A BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
• The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three
connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other
two. These three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and
the Collector ( C ) respectively.
• Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current
flowing through them from the Emitter to the Collector terminals in proportion to the
amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal, thus acting like a current-
controlled switch. As a small current flowing into the base terminal controls a much larger
collector current forming the basis of transistor action.
• The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the
only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.
• Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different
semiconductor materials that can act as either an insulator or a conductor by
the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor’s ability to change
between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: “switching”
(digital electronics) or “amplification” (analogue electronics). Then bipolar
transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:
• Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β*Ib
• Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and
Ic=I(saturation)
• Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and I
 Transistor Symbols

• There are two types of transistor, namely NPN transistor and PNP
transistor. The transistor which has two blocks of
 n-type semiconductor material and one block of 
P-type semiconductor material is known as NPN transistor.
Similarly, if the material has one layer of N-type material and two
layers of P-type material then it is called PNP transistor
• The NPN transistors comes with three layers i.e. two N-doped layers
and one P-doped layer. The P-doped layer is sandwiched between two
N-doped layers. In NPN transistors, conduction is carried out by both
charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes, however, electrons are major
charge carriers in NPN transistors.
• Similarly, PNP transistors comes with three layers i.e. two P-doped
layers and one N-doped layer. The N-doped layer exists between two
P-doped layers. Actually, N-doped layer is responsible for triggering
transistor action. When a proper bias voltage is applied at the P-doped
layer, it draws current which is then used to control large current at
other terminals.
•The symbol of NPN and PNP is shown in the figure below.

•The arrow in the symbol indicates the direction of flow of conventional

current in the emitter with forward biasing applied to the emitter-base
junction. The only difference between the NPN and PNP transistor is in
the direction of the current.
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FET)

• The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor that uses an electric field to control
the flow of current in a semiconductor. FETs are devices with three terminals: source, gate,
and drain. FETs control the flow of current by the application of a voltage to the gate, which
in turn alters the conductivity between the drain and source.
• The Field Effect Transistor, or simply FET however, uses the voltage that is applied to their
input terminal, called the Gate to control the current flowing through them resulting in the
output current being proportional to the input voltage. As their operation relies on an electric
field (hence the name field effect) generated by the input Gate voltage, this then makes the
Field Effect Transistor a “VOLTAGE” operated device.
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FET)
• The field effect transistor is a three terminal device that is constructed with no PN-junctions
within the main current carrying path between the Drain and the Source terminals. These
terminals correspond in function to the Collector and the Emitter respectively of the bipolar
transistor. The current path between these two terminals is called the “channel” which may
be made of either a P-type or an N-type semiconductor material.
• The control of current flowing in this channel is achieved by varying the voltage applied to
the Gate. As their name implies, Bipolar Transistors are “Bipolar” devices because they
operate with both types of charge carriers, Holes and Electrons. The Field Effect Transistor
on the other hand is a “Unipolar” device that depends only on the conduction of electrons
(N-channel) or holes (P-channel).
• There are two main types of field effect transistor, the Junction Field Effect Transistor or
JFET and the Insulated-gate Field Effect Transistor or IGFET), which is more commonly
known as the standard Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or MOSFET for
short.
 Applications of Transistor
• Transistors are mainly used for the amplification of low and high-
frequency AC signals.
• No current is produced at the collector terminal unless there is a
current at the base terminal. This process allows the transistor to
work as a switch. The transistor can be turned ON and OFF by
controlling the bias voltage at the base terminal.
• Based on requirements, a transistor can be made to operate in cut-off
or saturation region for switching applications.
• Integrated circuits added in the development of the processors are made
from transistors.
• Used in the development of logarithmic converters and logic gates.
• Transistors are widely used in modern electronics especially where
signal processing and radio transmission is required.
TRANSISTOR OPERATION:
AMPLIFICATION
TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

• A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak

signal. The DC bias voltage applied to the emitter base junction,
makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward bias is
maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below
figure shows how a transistor looks like when connected as an
amplifierA transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of
a weak signal. The DC bias voltage applied to the emitter base
junction, makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward
bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal.
• Amplifier circuit can be defined as, a circuit which is used to amplify
a signal. The input of the amplifier is a voltage otherwise current,
where the output will be an amplifier input signal. An amplifier
circuit which uses a transistor otherwise transistors is known as a
transistor amplifier. The applications of transistor amplifier circuits
mainly involve in audio, radio, optical fiber communication, etc.
 PERFORMANCE: INPUT
RESISTANCE
• As the input circuit is forward biased, the input resistance will
be low. The input resistance is the opposition offered by the
base-emitter junction to the signal flow. By definition, it is the
ratio of small change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the
resulting change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-
emitter voltage. Input resistance,
 Ri=ΔVBe/ΔIb
• Where Ri = input resistance, VBE = base-emitter voltage, and IB = base current.
 PERFORMANCE: OUTPUT RESISTANCE
•• The
  output resistance of a transistor amplifier is very high. The
collector current changes very slightly with the change in collector-
emitter voltage. By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector-
emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the resulting change in collector current
(ΔIC) at constant base current. Output resistance = 

• Ro=o
• Where Ro = Output resistance, VCE = Collector-emitter voltage, and
IC = Collector-emitter voltage.
CURRENT GAIN

• The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and output
currents are observed, is called as Current gain. By definition, it is
the ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC) to the change in base
current (ΔIB).
• Current gain, β=ΔI/ΔIB
• The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates
that input current becomes β times in the collector current.
POWER GAIN

• The gain in terms of power when the changes in input and

output currents are observed, is called as Power gain.
VOLTAGE GAIN

• The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and

output currents are observed, is called as Voltage gain. By
definition, it is the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔVCE) to the
change in input voltage (ΔVBE).
•
Voltage Gain
Av = Δvce /ΔIb
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
 TRANSISTOR AS A
SWITCH
• One of the most common uses for transistors in an electronic circuit
is as simple switches. In short, a transistor conducts current across
the collector-emitter path only when a voltage is applied to the base.
When no base voltage is present, the switch is off. When base
voltage is present, the switch is on.

• In an ideal switch, the transistor should be in only one of two states:

off or on. The transistor is off when there’s no bias voltage or when
the bias voltage is less than 0.7 V. The switch is on when the base is
saturated so that collector current can flow without restriction.
 TRANSISTOR AS A
SWITCH
Transistor switches can be used to switch a low voltage DC device
(e.g. LED’s) ON or OFF by using a transistor in its saturated or
cut-off state
 TRANSISTOR AS A
SWITCH
Operating Regions
• The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the
Saturation Region and the Cut-off Region.
 TRANSISTOR AS A
SWITCH
• Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero
input base current ( IB ), zero output collector current (
IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which
results in a large depletion layer and no current flowing
through the device. Therefore the transistor is switched
“Fully-OFF”.
 TRANSISTOR AS A
SWITCH
Cut-off Characteristics
 TRANSISTOR AS A
SWITCH
• Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum
amount of base current is applied, resulting in maximum
collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter
voltage drop which results in the depletion layer being as
small as possible and maximum current flowing through the
transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.
 TRANSISTOR AS A
SWITCH
Saturation Characteristics
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
WHAT IS PHOTOTRANSISTOR?
• A Phototransistor is an electronic switching and current amplification component which relies on
exposure to light to operate. When light falls on the junction, reverse current flows which are
proportional to the luminance. Phototransistors are used extensively to detect light pulses and
convert them into digital electrical signals. These are operated by light rather than electric current.
Providing a large amount of gain, low cost and these phototransistors might be used in numerous
applications.

• The phototransistor concept was known for the past many years. The first idea was proposed by
William Shockley in the year 1951, after the discovery of a normal bipolar transistor. After two
years, a phototransistor was demonstrated. After that, it was used in different applications, and day
by day its development was continued. 
CONSTRUCTION

• A phototransistor is nothing but an ordinary bi-polar transistor in which the

base region is exposed to illumination. It is available in both the P-N-P and
N-P-N types having different configurations like common emitter, common
collector, and common base but generally, common emitter configuration is
used. It can also work while the base is made open. Compared to the
conventional transistor it has more base and collector areas.
HOW DOES A PHOTOTRANSISTOR WORK?
A normal transistor includes an emitter, base, and collector terminals. The collector terminal
is biased positively relating to the emitter terminal & the BE junction is reverse biased.
A phototransistor activates once the light strikes the base terminal & the light triggers the
phototransistor by allowing the configuration of hole-electron pairs as well as the current flow
across the emitter or collector. When the current increases, then it is concentrated as well as
changed into voltage.
Generally, a phototransistor doesn’t include a base connection. The base terminal is
disconnected as the light is used to allow the flow of current to supply throughout the
phototransistor.
TYPES OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR
• BJT Phototransistor
In the deficiency of light, BJT phototransistor allows leakage among collectors as well
as an emitter of 100 nA otherwise low. Once this transistor is exposed to the beam, it
performs upto 50mA. This distinguishes it from photodiode which cannot allow much
current.

• FET Phototransistor
This kind of phototransistor includes two terminals that connect inside through its
collector & emitter otherwise source & drain within FET. The transistor’s base
terminal reacts to light & controls the current flow among the terminals.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR CIRCUIT

• A phototransistor works just like a normal

transistor, where the base current is
multiplied to give the collector current,
except that in a phototransistor, the base
current is controlled by the amount of
visible or infrared light where the device
only needs 2 pins.
CHARACTERISTICS 

• The characteristics of a phototransistor include the following.

• Low-cost visible and near-IR photodetection.
• Available with gains from 100 to over 1500.
• Moderately fast response times.
• Available in a wide range of packages including epoxy-coated, transfer-molded,
and surface mounting technology.
• Electrical characteristics were similar to that of signal transistors.
ADVANTAGES OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR

Phototransistors have several important advantages that separate them

from another optical sensor some of them are mentioned below
• Phototransistors produce a higher current than photodiodes.
• Phototransistors are relatively inexpensive, simple, and small enough to fit several of them
onto a single integrated computer chip.
• Phototransistors are very fast and are capable of providing nearly instantaneous output.
• Phototransistors produce a voltage, that photo-resistors cannot do so.
DISADVANTAGES OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR

• Phototransistors that are made of silicon are not capable of handling voltages

over 1,000 Volts.
• Phototransistors are also more vulnerable to surges and spikes of
electricity as well as electromagnetic energy.
• Phototransistors also do not allow electrons to move as freely as other
devices do, such as electron tubes.
APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOTRANSISTORS

The areas of application for the phototransistor include:

• Punch-card readers. • Computer logic circuitry.
• Security systems • Relays
• Encoders – measure speed and direction • Lighting control (highways etc)
• IR detectors photo • Level indication
• electric controls • Counting systems
Thus, this is all about an overview of a phototransistor. From the
information above finally, we can conclude that phototransistors are
widely used in different electronic devices for detecting light such as
infrared receivers, smoke detectors, lasers, CD players, etc.
OPTO-ISOLATOR
 WHAT IS AN OPTO-ISOLATOR?

An opto-isolator (also known as an optical coupler, photocoupler, or optocoupler) is a semiconductor

device that transfers an electrical signal between isolated circuits using light.
 WHAT IS AN OPTO-ISOLATOR?

The device converts the electrical energy into a beam of light

using light emitting diode, and then directing the light towards a
light sensor such as a photodiode or phototransistor which
converts the optical energy back into electrical energy. This
isolate the two circuits, prevents voltage spikes, and decreases
noise and interference associated with communication
connections.
 BASIC OPERATION OF AN OPTO-
ISOLATOR

The voltage from the primary circuit is applied to the power source to
produce a near-infrared light beam which travels across the closed
channel until it hits the photo sensor which converts the optical energy
to electrical energy. Once the light from the LED strikes the
phototransistor, it starts conducts the electricity depending on the state
and duration of light.
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT OPTOI-SOLATOR
OPERATIONS

The breakdown potential exterior to the opto-isolator depends on factors

such as the temperature, humidity, distance, barometric, pressure, type
and concentration of the contaminants in the air.

High humidity in the air may lead to arcing around the isolator or along
the surface of the circuit board, resulting to a conductive path and
possible short circuit around the opto-isolator.
 ADVANTAGES OF OPTO-
ISOLATOR
• Providing electrical and physical isolation of two sections of a circuit
and hence the safety
• Minimizing noise susceptibility and EMI and reducing interference such
as from electrical interference
• Relatively small and inexpensive
• Ability to limit voltage across multiple circuits
• Provide isolation
 DISADVANTAGES OF
OPTOISOLATOR

• Have limitations and cannot be used in some electrical

systems
• Affected by factors such as humidity, air pollution and
barometric pressure, each if which can cause arcing and
interference with isolation.
 APPLICATION OF OPTO-
ISOLALOR
The optoisolator are used in a variety of optical applications including the power
supplies to provide isolation, in the recording industry to reduce interference, and
in computer systems to transfer data. Application includes:
• Power supply feedback system
• Medical, industrial, applications
• Isolating ground loop currents
• High voltage level shifting
• Signal isolation
• Electrical power and noise isolation
THE END