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Research Methods Notes
Research Methods Notes
Martin Ogwang
Department of Health Records and Information Management
School of Public Health
BROAD OBJECTIVE
By the end of the unit, the learner will be
Nursing research:
• Is search into those aspects of professional activity which are
predominantly and appropriately the concern and
responsibility of nurses.
Significance:
• Development of scientific knowledge that enables nurses to
provide evidence based health care.
Def. cont
• Evidence based practice involve use of collective research
findings in:
studied
Respondents/informants: subjects who provide
Collection of information
Control
Involves imposing conditions on the research situation so
that biases are minimized and precision and validity
maximized
Ct Components of scientific approach
Empirical evidence
Findings of scientific investigations must be grounded
in reality (experiments/observations) rather than
personal beliefs
Empirical inquiry demands objectivity on the research
situation since the ideas must be tested in the real
world
Generalization
The quality of a research study is determined by how
much the findings can go beyond the specific situation
This is called generalisability of research findings which
is an important attribute of research
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
General purpose:
To answer questions or solve
problems
Purposes of research
1. Discovery of new knowledge
Most efficient & reliable source
2. Description
Describes what exist in practice
care.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
When describing types of research, researchers use
several methods of classification; as follows
1. Categories - what the study is to be used for.
2. Methodological approaches, which includes the research
approaches that the researcher intends to adapt in the
course of the study.
3. Aims of the study, including what the study aims at
achieving.
4. The time dimension referring to the time factor of the
study, i.e, is the study a ‘one off’ case or one that will take
months or even years.
Ct classification
In broad terms, research can be classified into;
Qualitative research approach- is ‘a systematic,
Basic research/pure/fundamental
Derive /add scientific knowledge(1)
Generate new knowledge to refine or expand existing theories
Theory development
Applied research:
Applying or testing theories
Evaluate usefulness of theories in solving problems
Provide data to support theory
Guide theory revision
Suggest development of new theory
By purpose cont’
• Action research
– Aims at solving a specific, immediate and concrete problem in a
local setting.
– Not concern with generalization of results to other settings.
theoretical solutions.
• Evaluation research
– Collection of data to facilitate decision making
Correlation methods-
Purposes:
Explore r/ship btw variables
in another variable
3.BY AIMS
Survey research-Collection of data from members of a
pop. in order to determine the current status of that pop. with
respect to one or more variables.
Can be: descriptive, explanatory etc
Purposes:
To Obtain information to describe existing phenomena e.g.
perceptions, values behaviors, attitudes etc
To explain/explore the existing status of >2 variables at a
given point in time.
To gather information from a population too large to
observe directly.
To excellently measure the characteristics of large pop.
cont’
Observational research-observation of certain phenomena to
obtain systematic objectives.
Purpose: Collection of objective information free from the
influence of self-report methods.
Types:
Participant
Non participant
Naturalistic
Simulation
Ethnographic
Case study
Content analysis
Cont’
Sources:
1º-1st hand knowledge from eye witnesses reports and original
documents.
2º-2nd hand information e.g descriptions from other people who
did not really observe the event happen but heard fro others.
Examples of historical sources
Longitudinal studies
These are the types of studies that are conducted over a long
duration of time.
A good example is the cohort study where individuals having a
relatively cheaper.
They are indicated where results are required
as a matter of urgency.
Retrospective Versus Prospective Research
Retrospective research - examines data collected in
the past, review of medical records.
In these records, events have already occurred, and
variables have already been measured.
Prospective research- examines data collected in the
present.
Prospective studies are more reliable than retrospective
studies because of the potential for greater control of
data collection.
Researchers invest a considerable amount of time
when conducting prospective studies
BROAD CLASSIFICATION
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is ‘a systematic, subjective approach used
to describe life experiences and give them meaning.
It focuses on the whole issue under investigation
Begins with preconceived ideas about how Has few preconceived ideas and stresses the
the concepts are interrelated. importance of people's interpretations of events
and circumstances, rather than the researcher's
interpretations.
Uses structured procedures and formal Collects information mainly without formal
instruments to collect information. structured instruments.
Collects information under controlled Does not attempt to control the context of the
conditions. research, but rather attempts to capture that
context in its entirety.
Emphasizes objectivity in the collection and Assumes that subjectivity is essential for
analysis of information. understanding of human experience
Investigator does not participate in the Involves sustained interaction with the
events under investigation and is most people being studied in their own
likely to language, and on their own turf.
collect data from a real distance.
phase 1.
Phase 2
The researcher designs the study and plans the methods
further study.
Phase 5
In this final phase researchers share findings with other
colleagues.
Reporting of research can take many forms, including
journal articles, abstracts, oral presentations, and poster
presentations.
The research process culminates with interpreting the
findings and communicating any new knowledge gained
from the research
The Research Process
Pilot study/pre-test
1. Identification of research problem and topic
• Existing literature
• Replication
Importance of the research topic
1. Informs the reader about expected research output
2. It is the focus/centre of the study
N/B
The title provides the first impression for your
audience of your proposal.
Your title must be complete and it should provide
the focus of your investigation.
Be sure that the title gives a glimpse of the nature of
the proposed investigation and includes the key
ideas
Criteria for choosing a good research topic in nursing
several reasons.
Research objectives help to:
Bridge the gap between the research purpose and the study design.
Keep the researcher within the scope of study by defining the area
of focus.
State your general objective followed by specific objectives for
validate,show………
Research questions
• These are restatements of the objectives, Should be derived
from specific objectives.
• A good research question should be ‛FINER’.
– E - Ethical.
Casual-indicates a cause and effect interaction btw >2 variables i.e. independent
and dependent
CONT’
statistical outcomes.
Can be simple or complex; associative or casual.
educational level.
RATIONALE/JUSTIFICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE
• This is the section of the study that outlines reasons for carrying out
the study.
Convince the reviewer of the importance of the proposal.
What is your paper going to add to the total sum of human knowledge
on this subject?
Cont’
What are you going to say about the problem that
nobody else has ever said before?
In general, why and how will this problem benefit
from being studied?
Who will benefit from this research?
on is important
RESEARCH DESIGN
The overall plan for obtaining an answer to the research question or
terminology:
Qualitative/quantitative
Intervention /observational
Cross-sectional/longitudinal
Prospective/retrospective
Etc
Design cont
• Lack of biasness-valid
• Precision/power
• Feasible
• ethical
STUDY POPULATION{SUBJECTS}
population.
Expressed in percentage between 1 and 100%.
• n=sample size
• N=population size
• e=level of precision
{Yamane (1967:886) }
DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is ‘the precise, systematic gathering of
process.
It is the data collection process that will determine the
Methods
Review of existing records
In-depth interviews(face to face or telephone)
Participatory or non-participatory observations
Focused group discussions
Data Collection Plan
Before data is collected a plan is to be drawn to follow the
following steps
1) List the tasks that have to be carried out and the people
responsible for those tasks.
2) Make a rough estimate of the time needed for different
parts of the study.
3) Identify the most appropriate period in which to carry out
the research.
4) Schedule the different activities that have to be carried
out each week in a work plan
Importance of developing data collection plan
Have a clear overview of what tasks have to be carried out,
Sensitive issues
2. Closed-ended Question
These are questions that offer the respondents a list of
Correlation,
Chi-square test,
Regression,
T-test etc
DATA PRESENTATION
a) Tables
b) Pie-charts
c) Bar-graphs
d) Histograms
e) Frequency polygons
Ethics in Nursing Research
Ethics is that branch of philosophy which deals with
– Freedom to withdraw
2. Principe of justice
– Right to privacy
– Right to anonymity
– Right to confidentiality
3.Principle of Beneficence
– Do good
– Do not harm(non-maleficence)
Issues cont
Scientific validity
Use of tests
Compensation or lack of
Confirmation by subject
Confirmation by researcher/interviewer.
COMMUNICATING THE RESEARCH
FINDINGS
Ways of disseminating:
i. A written report for academic purposes,(a dissertation or a
theses which are a requirement for academic reasons)
ii. A written report prepared for managers and policy
implementers .
iii. A written report sent as an article for publication in refereed
journals.
iv.Presentations of the research findings in workshops, seminars
and conferences
Report writing
Contents
• The Title
– should be an accurate reflection of the research carried
out
– needs to be both meaningful and brief
– It should not exceed fifteen words
• Abstract
– is a very brief summary of the study that includes:
– the purpose of the study,
– methodology
– major research findings.
– should not be longer than one page.
Cont’
Introduction
– Introduce the reader to the problem to be dealt with.
Literature Review
The literature review provides an overview of
current knowledge of the problem under research.
The researcher should be able to show a grasp of the
theory applications and apply the knowledge to the
research.
THE METHODOLOGY
RESULTS
• Involves the following:
-The main results from the data analysis.
– If a quantitative study was done, tables, graphs and diagrams
and the outcomes of statistical tests. In a qualitative study,
findings are usually presented in terms of the themes, which
emerged from the data and, by way of substantiation and
– illustration, examples of raw data will be given. For example,
direct quotes from an interview transcription, or accounts of
observation.
– In quantitative studies you must also give the name of any
statistical test used as well as the value of the calculated
statistics and its significance.
– Accuracy and conciseness must be adhered to throughout.
DISCUSSION
of the study.
in the introduction
research
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Present your references and bibliography in the standard
manner.
• Follow any format. However, you need to remember that
all your entries should be made in a consistent manner.
• Check that the names of authors included in your
reference list, are actually mentioned within the text.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Validity:-
• Degree to which research findings/results represent the
phenomenon under study.
• Validity is highly influenced by presence or absence of
systematic errors.
Cont’
Techniques of ensuring validity: Construct,Content,Criterion
related, Concurrent & Face validity.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
1.internal validity-
Where the changes on dependent variables are accurately attributed
to the independent variables.
Influenced by control of extraneous variables.
2.External validity-
Degree to which study findings can be generalized to populations
and environments outside the experimental setting.
Threats to internal validity
i. History
ii. Maturation
iii. Instrumentation
iv. Pre-testing
v. Statistical regression
vi. Attrition
• Include:
-Migration bias -Response bias
-Membership bias -Prevalence incidence bias
-Berksonian(admission rate) bias
Information bias-Occurs when the information obtained differ
qualitatively.
Include;
-Interviewer bias -Recall bias
-Surveillance bias -Loss of follow-up bias
-Observer bias -Diagnostic suspicion bias
-Misclassification bias
Reference