R.

Vijay Anand
ASM, Kerala
21 – 23 May 2007
Contents
 FREE ELECTRONS
Only the FREE ELECTRONS in the
outermost shell (Valance Ring)
are free to move from atom to

 
atom. This movement is called
ELECTRON FLOW.
These FREE ELECTRONS are
loosely held and can easily be
                                                                                                    

 
moved to another atom or ion.
Because of their distance from
the nucleus, free electrons have a
weak magnetic attraction. Since
this attraction is not as strong to
the nucleus as the bound
electrons on the inner orbits, the
electrons move easily from atom
to atom.
 INSULATORS
An INSULATOR is any
material that inhibits
(stops) the flow of electrons

 
(electricity).
An insulator is any material
with 5 to 8 free electrons in
                                                          the outer ring.Because,
                
atoms with 5 to 8 electrons
in the outer ring are held
(bound) tightly to the atom,
they CANNOT be easily
moved to another atom nor
make room for more
electrons.
Insulator material includes
glass, rubber, and plastic.
 CONDUCTORS
A CONDUCTOR is any material that
easily allows electrons (electricity)
to flow.

                                                            

               
A CONDUCTOR has 1 to 3 free
electrons in the outer ring.Because
atoms with 1 to 3 electrons in the
outer ring are held (bound) loosely
to the atom, they can easily move
to another atom or make room for
more electrons.
Conductor material includes copper
and gold.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Any material with exactly 4
free electrons in the outer

 
orbit are called
SEMICONDUCTORS.

                                                                                              
A semiconductor is neither
a conductor or insulator.
 

semiconductor material
includes carbon, silicon,
and germanium.
These materials are be
used in the manufacturer
of diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuit chips.
                                                                                                             

                                                           

Two Current Flow theories exist. The first is:

ELECTRON THEORY
The Electron Theory states that current flows from NEGATIVE to
POSITIVE. Electrons move from atom to atom as they move through
the conductor towards positive.
                                                                                                             

                                                           

The second Current Flow theory is:

CONVENTIONAL THEORY
Conventional theory, also known as HOLE THEORY, states that
current flows from POSITIVE to NEGATIVE. Protons or the lack of
electrons (the holes) move towards the negative. (Current flow
direction in Hole Theory is the opposite of that in Electron Theory.)
                                                                                                                      

                                                                                                

VOLTAGE
Voltage is the electrical force that moves electrons through a
conductor. Voltage is electrical pressure also known as EMF
(Electro Motive Force) that pushes electrons.
The greater the difference in electrical potential push
(difference between positive and negative), the greater the
voltage force potential.
 MEASUREMENT
A VOLTMETER measures the voltage
potential across or parallel to the circuit.
The Voltmeter measures the amount of
electrical pressure difference between
two points being measured.

 
Voltage can exist between two points
without electron flow.
VOLTAGE UNITS
Voltage is measured in units called
VOLTS.
Voltage measurements can use different
                                                                                                    

value prefixes such as millivolt, volt,

Kilovolt, and Megavolt.
 

VOLTAGE LESS THAN BASIC UNIT LARGER

BASE UNIT THAN
BASE UNIT
Symbol mV V kV
Pronounced millivolt Volt Kilovolt
Multiplier 0.001 1 1,000
  
CURRENT (AMPERES)
                                                                                        

                                                                       

CURRENT is the quantity or flow rate of electrons moving past

a point within one second. Current flow is also known as
amperage, or amps for short.
Higher voltage will produce higher current flow, and lower
voltage will produce lower current flow.
MEASUREMENT
An AMMETER measures the quantity of current flow. Ammeters are placed in series

 
(inline) to count the electrons passing through it.
Example: A water meter counts the gallons of water flowing through it.

                                                                                    

MEASUREMENT
                                                                           
An AMMETER measures the quantity of current flow. Ammeters are placed in series
(inline) to count the electrons passing through it.
Example: A water meter counts the gallons of water flowing through it.
AMPERAGE LESS THAN LESS THAN BASIC UNIT
BASE UNIT BASE UNIT

Symbol µA mA A

Pronounced Microamp milliamp Amp

Multiplier 0.000001 0.001 1

EFFECTS OF CURRENT FLOW
Two common effects of current flow are Heat Generation and
Electromagnetism.
HEAT: When current flows, heat will be generated. The higher the
current flow the greater the heat generated. An example would be a
light bulb. If enough current flows across the filament, it will glow
white hot and illuminate to produce light.
ELECTROMAGNETISM: When current flows, a small magnetic field is
created. The higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic
field. An example: Electromagnetism principles are used in
alternators, ignition systems, and other electronic devices.
RESISTANCE
Resistance is the force that reduces or stops the flow of
electrons. It opposes voltage.

 
Higher resistance will decrease the flow of electrons and
lower resistance will allow more electrons to flow.
                                                                                   

                                                                            
MEASUREMENT

An OHMMETER measures the resistance of an

electrical circuit or component. No voltage can be
applied while the ohmmeter is connected, or
damage to the meter will occur.
Example: Water flows through a garden hose, and
someone steps on the hose. The greater the

 
pressure placed on the hose, the greater the hose
restriction and the less water flows.
RESISTANCE UNITS
Resistance is measured in units called OHMS.
Resistance measurements can use different value
                                             

prefixes, such as Kilo ohm and Megaohms.

                    

AMPERAGE BASIC UNIT MORE THAN MORE THAN

BASE UNIT BASE UNIT

Symbol Ώ KΏ MΏ

Pronounced Ohm Kilo ohm Megaohm

Multiplier 1 1,000 1,000,000

 RESISTANCE FACTORS

Various factors can affect the resistance. These include:

LENGTH of the conductor. The longer the conductor, the higher the
resistance.
DIAMETER of the conductor. The narrower the conductor, the higher the
resistance.
TEMPERATURE of the material. Depending on the material, most will
increase resistance as temperature increases.
PHYSICAL CONDITION (DAMAGE) to the material. Any damage will
increase resistance.
TYPE of MATERIAL used. Various materials have a wide range of
resistances.
 TYPES OF ELECTRICITY

Two basic types of Electricity classifications:

STATIC ELECTRICITY is electricity that is standing still. Voltage potential
with NO electron flow.
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY is electricity that is in motion. Voltage potential
WITH electron flow. Two types of Dynamic electricity exist:
Direct Current (DC) Electron Flow is in only one direction.
Alternating Current (AC) Electron flow alternates and flows in both
directions (back and forth).
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Voltage potential with NO electron flow.
Example: By rubbing a silk cloth on a glass rod, you physically
remove electrons from the glass rod and place them on the
cloth. The cloth now has a surplus of electrons (negatively

 
charged), and the rod now has a deficiency of electrons
(positively charged).
Another example: Rub your shoes on a rug and then touch a
                                                                                                              

metal table or chair .... Zap!! The shock you felt was the static
                                                                                             

electricity dissipating through your body.

 Direct
Current (DC)
Dynamic
Electricity
Alternating
Current (AC)

DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY
is electricity in motion, meaning you have electrons
flowing, in other words voltage potential WITH
electron flow.
Two types of dynamic electricity exists:
Direct Current (DC)
Alternating Current (AC)
 ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
DIRECT CURRENT (DC)
Electricity with electrons
Electricity with electrons
flowing back and forth,
flowing in only one direction
negative - positive- negative,
is called Direct Current or

 
is called Alternating Current,
DC.
or AC.
DC electrical systems are
The electrical appliances in
used in cars.
your home use AC power.

                                                                                                                                                                   

                                              
Battery Basics
THE AUTOMOTIVE BATTERY

A lead-acid storage battery is an electrochemical device that produces voltage and

delivers electrical current. The battery is the primary "source" of electrical energy
used in vehicles today. It's important to remember that a battery does not store
electricity, but rather it stores a series of chemicals, and through a chemical process
electricity is produced. Basically, two different types of lead in an acid mixture react
to produce an electrical pressure called voltage. This electrochemical reaction
changes chemical energy to electrical energy and is the basis for all automotive
batteries.
BATTERY CONSTRUCTION
An automobile battery contains a diluted sulfuric acid
electrolyte and positive and negative electrodes, in the form
of several plates. Since the plates are made of lead or lead-
derived materials, this type of battery is often called a lead
acid battery. A battery is separated into several cells
(usually six in the case of automobile batteries), and in each
cell there are several battery elements, all bathed in the
electrolyte solution.
CELL OPERATION
Two dissimilar metals placed in an acid bath produce
electrical potential across the poles. The cell produces
voltage by a chemical reaction between the plates and the
electrolyte. The positive plate is made of reddish-brown
material such as Lead Dioxide (PBO2) while the negative
plate is made of grayish material called Sponge Lead (PB).
The acid bath is a mixture of sulfuric acid and water cell
electrolyte. Together a cell element is formed.
CYCLING

The battery stores electricity in the form of chemical energy.

Through a chemical reaction process the battery creates and
releases electricity as needed by the electrical system or
devices. Since the battery loses its chemical energy in this
process, the battery must be recharged by the alternator. By
reversing electrical current flow through the battery the
chemical process is reversed, thus charging the battery. The
cycle of discharging and charging is repeated continuously
and is called "battery cycling".
CELL VOLTAGE
Each cell element of the battery produces approximately 2.1 volts,
regardless of the quantity or size of the plates. Automobile
batteries have six cells that are connected in series, which
produces a total voltage of 12.6 volts.
BATTERY CELL ELEMENT
The key to battery operation is the cell element. Positive plates and negative
plates are each connected together by separate plate straps. These groups of
positive and negative plates are then placed alternately, separated by micro-
porous separators. Assembled together, the plates and separators form a battery
cell element. Grouping the plates in this way serves to enlarge the surface area
between the active materials and the electrolyte, thus allowing a greater amount
of electricity to be supplied. In other words, the battery capacity is increased
because of the increase in surface area. More plate surface area means the battery
can deliver more current.
ELECTROLYTE
Battery electrolyte is a mixture of 64% distilled water (H20) and
36% sulfuric acid (SO4). Batteries today have an electrolyte
with a specific gravity of 1.270 (at 20'C, 68'F) when fully
charged. Specific Gravity is the weight of a given volume of
liquid in comparison to the weight of the same volume of water.
The higher the specific gravity of a liquid the denser (thicker) it
is. Testing specific gravity will be discussed in the Battery
Service Module.
VISUAL INSPECTION
Battery service should begin with a thorough
visual inspection. This inspection may reveal
simple, easily corrected problems.
1 . Check for cracks in the battery case and
broken terminals. Either may allow
electrolyte leakage, which requires battery
replacement.
2. Check for cracked or broken cables or
connections. Replace, as needed.
3. Check for corrosion on terminals and dirt
or acid on the case top. Clean the terminals
and case top with a mixture of water and
baking soda. A battery wire brush tool is
needed for heavy corrosion on the terminals.
4. Check for a loose battery hold-down or
loose cable connections. Clean and tighten,
as needed.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY READINGS
By measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, you can tell
if the battery is fully charged, requires charging, or must be
replaced. It can tell you if the battery is sufficiently charged for
a capacity (heavy-load) test. The battery must be at least 75%
charged to perform a heavy load test. (The heavy load test will
be discussed later). In other words, each cell must have a
specific gravity of 1.230 or higher to proceed.
CELL READINGS PERCENT CHARGED
1.270 100 %
1.230 75%
1.190 50%
1.145 25%
1.100 0%

If the battery is less than 75% charged, it must be fully

recharged before proceeding. If the battery is 75% or higher
proceed to a heavy load test. A battery not sufficiently charged
will fail because it is discharged.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST PROCEDURE
(HYDROMETER)

1. Wear suitable eye protection.

2. Remove vent caps or covers from the
battery cells.
3. Squeeze the hydrometer bulb and insert
the pickup tube into the cell closest to the
battery's positive (+) terminal.
4. Slowly release the bulb to draw in only
enough electrolyte to cause the float to rise.
Do not remove the tube from the cell.
5. Read the specific gravity indicated on the
float. Be sure the float is drifting free, not in
contact with the sides of top of the barrel.
Bend down to read the hydrometer at eye
level. Disregard the slight curvature of liquid
on the float.
6. Record your readings and repeat the
procedure for the remaining cells.
 The Charging System
The charging system has three major components. The
Battery, Alternator, and the Regulator.
This alternator works together with the battery to supply
power when the vehicle is running.

 
The output of an alternator is direct current, however AC
voltage is actually created and then converted to DC as
voltage leaves the alternator on its way to the battery and the
electrical loads.
                                                                                                         

  
 The Charging System Circuit

                                                                                                                                                                                 

                 

Four wires connect the alternator to the rest of the charging system.
'B' is the alternator output wire that supplies current to the battery.
'IG' is the ignition input that turns on the alternator/regulator
assembly.
'S' is used by the regulator to monitor charging voltage at the
battery.
'L' is the wire the regulator uses to ground the charge warning lamp.
 Alternator Terminal ID's
'S' terminal
Senses battery voltage
'IG' terminal
Ignition switch signal turns

 
regulator ON
'L' terminal
Grounds warning lamp
'B' terminal                                                                                                          

Alternator output terminal   

'F' terminal
Regulator Full-Field bypass
The Alternator Assembly

                                                                                                                                                       

                      
 The alternator contains:

•A rotating field winding called the rotor.

•A stationary induction winding called the stator.
•A diode assembly called the rectifier bridge.
•A control device called the voltage regulator.
•Two internal fans to promote air circulation.
 Drive Pulley

Alternator drive pulleys either

bolt on or are pressed on the
rotor shaft.
Both 'V' and Multi-grove types

 
are used.
Note this alternator does not
have an external fan as part of
                                                                                                         

the pulley assembly.   

While many manufacturers do

use a external fan for cooling.
This alternator has two
internal fans to draw air in for
cooling.
Rotor Assembly
A basic rotor consists of a iron core, coil winding, two slip
rings, and two claw-shaped finger pole pieces.
Some models include support bearings and one or two internal
cooling fans.

 
The rotor is driven or rotated inside the alternator by an engine
(alternator) drive belt.

                                                                                                         

  
 Rotor Assembly

                                                                                                           

The rotor contains the field winding wound over an iron

  

core which is part of the shaft.

Surrounding the field coil are two claw-type finger poles.
Each end of the rotor field winding is attached to a slip ring.
Stationary brushes connect the alternator to the rotor.
The rotor assembly is supported by bearings. One on the
shaft the other in the drive frame.
Alternating Magnetic Field

                                              

The rotor field winding creates the magnetic field that

induces voltage into the stator.
The magnetic field saturates the iron finger poles. One finger
pole becomes a north pole and the other a south pole.
The rotor spins creating an alternating magnetic field, North,
South, North, South, etc.
 Stator Winding

 
The stator is made with three sets of windings.
                                                                                                                                                                                                            

Each winding is placed is a different position compared with the others.

A laminated iron frame concentrates the magnetic field.
     

Stator lead ends output current to the diode rectifier bridge.

Neutral Junction in the Wye design can be identified by the 6 strands of wire.
Rotor / Stator Relationship

As the rotor assembly rotates within the stator winding:

The alternating magnetic field from the spinning rotor induces an
alternating voltage into the stator winding.
The strength of the magnetic field and the speed of the rotor affect the
amount of voltage induced into the stator
Working Alternator

The regulator monitors battery

voltage.
The regulator controls current

 
flow to the rotor assembly.
The rotor produces a magnetic
field.
Voltage is induced into the
stator.
                                                                                                         

  
The rectifier bridge converts AC
stator voltage to DC output for
use by the vehicle.
STARTER MOTOR
Electrical Circuits
AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

The circuit shown below has a power source, fuse, switch, two lamps and
wires connecting each into a loop or circle. When the connection is
complete, current flows from the positive terminal of the battery through
the wire, the fuse, the switch, another wire, the lamps, a wire and to the
negative terminal of the battery. The route along which the electricity
flows is called an electrical circuit.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS

A complete Electrical Circuit is required in order to make

electricity practical. Electrons must flow from and return
to the power source.
There are three different circuit types, all require the
same basic components:
1. Power Source is needed to supply the flow of electrons
(electricity).
2. Protection Device prevents damage to the circuit in the
event of a short.
3. Load Device converts the electricity into work.
4. Control Device allows the user control to turn the
circuit on or off
5. Conductors provide an electrical path to and from the
power source.
BASIC CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

1. Power Source (Battery, Alternator, Generator, etc.)

2. Protection Device (Fuse, Fusible Link, or Circuit
Breaker)
3. Load Device (Lamp, Motor, Winding, Resistor, etc.
4. Control (Switch, Relay, or Transistor)
5. Conductors (A Return Path, Wiring to Ground)
LOADS
The illustration below has a horn in place of the lamp. Any
device such as a lamp, horn, wiper motor, or rear window
defogger, that consumes electricity is called a load. In an
electrical circuit, all loads are regarded as resistance. Loads
use up voltage and control the amount of current flowing in a
circuit. Loads with high resistance cause less current to flow
while those with lower resistance allow high current rates to
flow.
AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS
In an automotive electrical circuit, one end of the wire from each
load returning to the battery is connected to the vehicle body or
frame. Therefore, the vehicle body or frame itself functions as a
conductor, allowing current to flow though the body or frame and
back to the battery. The body or frame is then referred to as the
body ground (or earth) of the circuit (meaning that part of the
circuit that returns the current to the battery).
WHAT IS OHM'S LAW?

A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and

resistance in electrical circuits. Understanding this relationship is
important for fast, accurate electrical problem diagnosis and
repair.

OHM'S LAW
Ohm's Law says: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and
inversely proportional to the amount of resistance. This means that if the voltage goes up, the
current flow will go up, and vice versa. Also, as the resistance goes up, the current goes down,
and vice versa. Ohm's Law can be put to good use in electrical troubleshooting. But calculating
precise values for voltage, current, and resistance is not always practical ... nor, really needed. A
more practical, less time-consuming use of Ohm's Law would be to simply apply the concepts
involved:
SOURCE VOLTAGE is not affected by either current or resistance. It is either too low, normal, or
too high. If it is too low, current will be low. If it is normal, current will be high if resistance is low,
or current will be low if resistance is high. If voltage is too high, current will be high.
CURRENT is affected by either voltage or resistance. If the voltage is high or the resistance is
low, current will be high. If the voltage is low or the resistance is high, current will be low.
RESISTANCE is not affected by either voltage or current. It is either too low, okay, or too high. If
resistance is too low, current will be high at any voltage. If resistance is too high, current will be
low if voltage is okay.
NOTE: When the voltage stays the same, such as in an Automotive Circuit... current goes up as
resistance goes down, and current goes down as resistance goes up. Bypassed devices reduce
resistance, causing high current. Loose connections increase resistance, causing low current.
OHM'S LAW FORMULA
When voltage is applied to an electrical circuit, current flows in the circuit.
The following special relationship exists among the voltage, current and
resistance within the circuit: the size of the current that flows in a circuit
varies in proportion to the voltage which is applied to the circuit, and in
inverse proportion to the resistance through which it must pass. This
relationship is called Ohm's law, and can be expressed as follows:
E=IR
Voltage = Current x Resistance
E Voltage applied to the circuit, in volts (V) I Current flowing in the circuit,
in amperes (A)
R Resistance in the circuit, in ohms
 
In practical terms "V = I x R" which means
"Voltage = Current x Resistance".
1 volt will push one amp through 1 ohm of resistance.
NOTE: E = IR, V=AR, or V=IR are all variations of the same formula. How
you learned Ohm's law will determine which one you will use. Personal
preference is the only difference; anyone will get you the correct answer.
OHM'S LAW SYMBOL SHORTCUT
Mathematical formulas can be difficult for many who don't
use them regularly. Most people can remember a picture
easier than a mathematical formula. By using the Ohms
law symbol below, anyone can remember the correct
formula to use. By knowing any two values you can figure
out the third. Simply put your finger over the portion of
the symbol you are trying to figure out and you have your
formula.
APPLICATIONS OF OHM'S LAW
As an application of Ohm's law, any voltage V, current I or resistance R in an
electrical circuit can be determined without actually measuring it if the two others
values are known.
This law can be used to determine the amount of current I flowing in the circuit
when voltage V is applied to resistance R. As stated previously, Ohm's law is:

Current = Voltage / Resistance.

In the following circuit, assume that resistance R is 2 and voltage V that is applied
to it is 12 V. Then, current I flowing in the circuit can be determined as follows:
This law can also be used to determine the voltage V that
is needed to permit current I to pass through resistance
R: V = I x R (Voltage= Current x Resistance).
In the following circuit, assume that resistance R is 4
ohms. The voltage V that is necessary to permit a current
I of 3 A to pass through the resistance can be determined
as follows:
Still another application of the law can be used to determine the
resistance R when the voltage V which is applied to the circuit and
current I flowing in the circuit are already known:

In the following circuit, assume that a voltage V of 12 V is applied

to the circuit and current I of 4 A flows in it. Then, the resistance
value R of the resistance or load can be determined as follows:
TYPES OF CIRCUITS
Individual electrical circuits normally combine one or
more resistance or load devices. The design of the
automotive electrical circuit will determine which
type of circuit is used. There are three basic types of
circuits:
Series Circuit
Parallel Circuit
Series-Parallel Circuit
SERIES CIRCUITS
A series circuit is the simplest circuit. The conductors, control and
protection devices, loads, and power source are connected with
only one path to ground for current flow. The resistance of each
device can be different. The same amount of current will flow
through each. The voltage across each will be different. If the path
is broken, no current flows and no part of the circuit works.
Christmas tree lights are a good example; when one light goes out
the entire string stops working.
SERIES CIRCUITS
A Series Circuit has only one path to ground, so electrons must go
through each component to get back to ground. All loads are placed
in series.
Therefore:
1. An open in the circuit will disable the entire circuit.
2. The voltage divides (shared) between the loads.
3. The current flow is the same throughout the circuit.
4. The resistance of each load can be different.
SERIES CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
If, for example, two or more lamps (resistances R1 and R2, etc.) are
connected in a circuit as follows, there is only one route that the current
can take. This type of connection is called a series connection. The value
of current I is always the same at any point in a series circuit.

The combined resistance RO in this circuit is

equal to the sum of individual resistance R1
and R2. In other words: The total
resistance(RO) is equal to the sum of all
resistances (R1 + R2 + R3 + .......)

Therefore, the strength of current (I) flowing

in the circuit can be found as follows:
Resistance R0 (a combination of resistances R1 and
R2, which are connected in series in the circuit as
illustrated) and current I flowing in this circuit can
be determined as follows:
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A parallel circuit has more than one path for current flow. The same voltage
is applied across each branch. If the load resistance in each branch is the
same, the current in each branch will be the same. If the load resistance in
each branch is different, the current in each branch will be different. If one
branch is broken, current will continue flowing to the other branches.
A Parallel Circuit has multiple paths or branches to ground. Therefore:
1. In the event of an open in the circuit in one of the branches, current will
continue to flow through the remaining.
2. Each branch receives source voltage.
3. Current flow through each branch can be different.
4. The resistance of each branch can be different.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
In parallel connection, two or more resistances (R1, R2, etc.) are
connected in a circuit as follows, with one end of each resistance
connected to the high (positive) side of the circuit, and one end
connected to the low (negative) side. Full battery voltage is applied to
all resistances within a circuit having a parallel connection.
Resistance R0 (a combination of resistances R1 and R2 ) in a parallel
connection can be determined as follows:

From the above, the total current I flowing in this circuit can be determined from
Ohm's law as follows:

The total current I is also equal to the sum of currents I1 and I2 flowing through
individual resistances R1 and R2

Since battery voltage V is applied equally to all resistances, the strength of currents I1 and
I2 can be determined from Ohm's law as follows:
Resistance RO (a combination of resistances R1 and R2, which
are connected in parallel in the circuit as shown below), the
total current I flowing in the circuit, and currents I1 and I2
flowing through resistances R1 and R2, can be determined
respectively as follows:
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A resistance and lamps may be connected in a circuit as
illustrated below. This type of connecting method is called
series-parallel connection, and is a combination of series and
parallel connections. The interior dash board lights are a good
example. By adjusting the rheostat, you can increase or
decrease the brilliance of the lights.
CONTROL DEVICES
SWITCHES
Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
Momentary Contact
Multiple Pole Multiple Throw (MPMT or Gang
Switch)
Temperature (Bimetal)
Time Delay
Flasher

RELAYS
SOLENOIDS
RELAYS
A relay is simply a remote-control switch, which uses a small
amount of current to control a large amount of current. A typical
relay has both a control circuit and a power circuit. Relay
construction contains an iron core, electromagnetic coil, and an
armature (moveable contact set). There are two types of relays:
normally open (shown below) and normally closed (NOT
shown). A Normally open (N.O.) relay has contacts that are "open"
until the relay is energized while a normally closed (N.C.) relay
has contacts that are "closed" until the relay is energized.
RELAY OPERATION
Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core.
The iron core intensifies the magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the
upper contact arm and pulls it down, closing the contacts and allowing power
from the power source to go to the load. When the coil is not energized, the
contacts are open, and no power goes to the load. When the control circuit
switch is closed, however, current flows to the relay and energizes the coil. The
resulting magnetic field pulls the armature down, closing the contacts and
allowing power to the load. Many relays are used for controlling high current in
one circuit with low current in another circuit. An example would be a
computer, which controls a relay, and the relay controls a higher current
circuit.
SOLENOIDS - PULLING TYPE
A solenoid is an electromagnetic switch that converts current flow into
mechanical movement. As current flows through the winding a magnetic
field is created. The magnetic field will pull the moveable iron core into the
center of the winding. This type of solenoid is called a "pulling" type
solenoid, as the magnetic field pulls the moveable iron core into the coil. A
common use for pulling solenoids are in the starting system. The starter
solenoid engages the starter with the flywheel.
As current flows through the winding a magnetic field is created. These
magnetic lines of force want to be as small as possible. If an iron core is
placed near the coil that has current flowing through it, the magnetic field
will stretch out like a rubber band, reaching out and pulling the iron bar into
the center of the coil.
SOLENOIDS - PUSH/PULL TYPE
In a "push-pull" type solenoid, a permanent magnet is used
for the core. Since "like" magnetic charges repel and "unlike"
magnetic charges attract, by changing the direction of current
flow through the coil, the core is either "pulled in" or "pushed
out."
Circuit Protection
CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Circuit protection devices are used to protect wires and
connectors from being damaged by excess current flow
caused by either an over current or short-circuit. Excess
current causes excess heat, which causes circuit protection
to "open circuit".
CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES
Fuses, fuse elements, fusible links, and
circuit breakers are used as circuit
protection devices. Circuit protection
devices are available in a variety of types,
shapes, and specific current ratings.
FUSES
A fuse is the most common protection device. A fuse is placed in an
electrical circuit, so that when current flow exceeds the rating of the
fuse it "blows" or "blows out". The element in the fuse melts, opening
the circuit and preventing other components of the circuit from being
damaged by the overcurrent. The size of the metal fuse element
determines its rating. Remember, excessive current causes excess
heat, and it's the heat and not the current that causes the circuit
protector to open. Once a fuse "blows" it must be replaced with a new
one.
FUSE TYPES
Fuses are classified into basic categories: blade type
fuses or cartridge type fuses. Several variations of each
are used.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit breakers are used in place of fuses for the protection
of complicated power circuits such as the power windows,
sunroofs and heater circuits. Three types of circuit breakers
exists: The manual reset type - mechanical, the automatic
resetting type - mechanical, and the automatically reset solid
state type - PTC. Circuit breakers are usually located in
relay/fuse boxes; however, some components like power
window motors have circuit breakers built in.
CIRCUIT BREAKER CONSTRUCTION (MANUAL
TYPE)
A circuit breaker basically consists of a bimetal strip
connected to two terminals and to a contact in
between. Manual circuit breaker when tripped (current
flow beyond its rating) will open and must be reset
manually.
                                                                      
RELAYS
Relays are used throughout the automobile. Relays
which come in assorted sizes, ratings, and
applications, are used as remote control switches.
RELAY LOCATIONS
Relays are located throughout the entire vehicle. Relay blocks, both
large and small, are located in the engine compartment; behind the
left or right kick panels, or under the dash are common locations.
Relays are often grouped together or with other components like
fuses or placed by themselves.
RELAY POSITION IDENTIFICATION
Relay / Fuse block covers usually label the location
and position of each fuse, relay, or fuse element
contained within.
RELAY APPLICATIONS
Relays are remote control electrical
switches that are controlled by
another switch, such as a horn switch
or a computer as in a power train
control module. Relays allow a small
current flow circuit to control a higher
current circuit. Several designs of
relays are in use today, 3-pin, 4-pin,
5-pin, and 6-pin, single switch or dual
switches.
RELAY OPERATION
All relays operate using the same basic
principle. Our example will use a commonly
used 4 - pin relay. Relays have two circuits:
A control circuit (shown in GREEN) and a load
circuit (shown in RED). The control circuit has
a small control coil while the load circuit has
a switch. The coil controls the operation of
the switch.
RELAY ENERGIZED (ON)
Current flowing through the control circuit
coil (pins 1 and 3) creates a small
magnetic field which causes the switch to
close, pins 2 and 4. The switch, which is
part of the load circuit, is used to control
an electrical circuit that may connect to it.
Current now flows through pins 2 and 4
shown in RED, when the relay is
energized.
RELAY DE-ENERGIZED (OFF)
When current stops flowing through
the control circuit, pins 1 and 3, the
relay becomes de-energized. Without
the magnetic field, the switch opens
and current is prevented from flowing
through pins 2 and 4. The relay is now
OFF.
NORMALLY DESIGN ID
Relays are either Normally Open or Normally Closed. Notice
the position of the switches in the two relays shown below.
Normally open relays have a switch that remains open until
energized (ON) while normally closed relays are closed until
energized. Relays are always shown in the de-energized

 
position (no current flowing through the control circuit - OFF).
Normally open relays are the most common in vehicles;
however either can be use in automotive applications.

                                                                   

Normally Open (NO)   Normally Close (NC)  

ACTUAL RELAY DESIGN
Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around
an iron core. The iron core intensifies the magnetic field. The
magnetic field attracts the upper contact arm and pulls it down,
closing the contacts and allowing power from the power source
to go to the load.
RELAY VARIATIONS
Other relay variations include three and five pin relays. A 3-PIN relay instead
of two B+ input sources, this relay has one B+ input at pin 1. Current splits
inside the relay, supplying power to both the control and load circuits. A 5-PIN
relay has a single control circuit, but two separate current paths for the
switch: One when the relay is de-energized (OFF - no current through the
control coil) and the other the energized (ON - current is flowing through the
control coil). When the 5-PIN relay is de-energized (OFF), pins 4 and 5 have
continuity. When the relay is energized (ON), pins 3 and 5 have continuity.

3 - PIN 4 - PIN 5 - PIN

ISO STANDARDIZED RELAYS
ISO relays were designed to try and standardize relay connections, making it
easier to test and design systems. ISO relays are currently used by almost all
automotive manufacturers today. Both 4 and 5 pin designs are used in both
standard mini and micro sizes. FYI: ISO is short for International Standard
Organization.
STANDARD MINI ISO RELAYS TYPES
Below are two popular standard MINI ISO relay
configurations. The size of a ISO Standard MINI relay is a 1"
square cube. Both 4 and 5 pins designs are used.